3 2. Lesson Two: Introduction and Overview

1. Lesson One: Final Page (Printed Page 57 | Lesson Page 10)

The following concludes the introductory material of the first lesson, focusing on the synthesis of words into sentences and the initial application of phonetic joining rules (Sandhi).

Vocabulary Synthesis

Sentence Construction and Sandhi Notes

1. Sentence Structure with Spaces: In standard writing, words are placed sequentially with spaces.
   • ഞാൻ വീട്ടിൽ പോകുന്നു. (I am going home.)
   • വെള്ളം തരൂ. (Please give me some water.)
   • എനിക്ക് പഠിക്കാൻ വയ്യ. (I don’t feel like studying.)
   • ചെച്ചി എവിടെ പോയി? (Where did elder sister go?)
2. Simple Sandhi (Joining): Malayalam frequently joins words, modifying spelling to facilitate fluid speech.
   • അത് + ആണ് → അതാണ്. (That’s it.) [Consonant-Vowel joining]
   • നിങ്ങൾക്ക് + ഉണ്ടോ? → നിങ്ങൾക്കുണ്ടോ? (Do you have it/any?) [Consonant-Vowel joining]
   • അനിയത്തി + എടുത്തു? → അനിയത്തിയെടുത്തു. (Younger sister took it.) [Vowel-Vowel joining]

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2. Lesson Two: Introduction and Overview (Printed Page 58 | Lesson Page 11)

Lesson Two: The Malayalam Writing System

The Malayalam writing system, or script, is both phonetic and syllabic. It is based on an alphabet where characters represent specific sounds, and these characters are combined to form the syllables used in speech. For English speakers, the script requires memorization of four distinct letter types: initial vowels, consonants, dependent vowels (added to consonants), and combining consonants used for conjunct sounds.

A primary characteristic of the script is its rounded nature, common to South Indian languages. The system described in this course follows the modern or reformed Malayalam script established in the 1970s, which was designed to facilitate efficient typing and computer entry.

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3. Lesson Two: Reference Lists and Vocabulary (Printed Pages 59–61)

The following tables synthesize the foundational elements of the Malayalam script as presented in the reference grammar.

Vowels (Initial and Dependent)

Consonant Modifications and Terminology

Usage Note: Consonants always have an inherent a-sound, unless they are marked with a different dependent vowel or “cut off” with the special sign that looks like small crescent, for example ത് ല്, or other marker.

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4. Lesson Two: Conversations and Dialogues (Printed Pages 62–63)

The following sentence structures illustrate standard word spacing and the application of Sandhi in conversational contexts.

Speaker 1: ഞാൻ വീട്ടിൽ പോകുന്നു. / I am going home. Speaker 2: വെള്ളം തരൂ. / Please give me some water. Speaker 1: എനിക്ക് പഠിക്കാൻ വയ്യ. / I don’t feel like studying. Speaker 2: ചെച്ചി എവിടെ പോയി? / Where did elder sister go?

Example of Joined Speech (Sandhi): Speaker 1: അത് ആണ്. / That is (it). Speaker 2: അതാണ്. / That’s it. Speaker 1: നിങ്ങൾക്ക് ഉണ്ടോ? / Do you have (it)? Speaker 2: നിങ്ങൾക്കുണ്ടോ? / Do you have it?

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5. Lesson Two: Grammar Notes (Sections 2.1 through 2.6)

2.1 Initial and Dependent Vowels

If a vowel begins a word, the initial vowel form must be used. However, when a vowel occurs in the middle or end of a word following a consonant, it must take its dependent vowel form to change the inherent a-sound of the consonant. In the modern script, these markers generally stand apart from the consonant, positioned to the right, though some (ഒ, ഓ, ഐ, and ഔ) appear on both sides.

ക + ആ = കാ (kā)

2.2 Echo Vowel (Schwa) and Cillakṣaraṃ

The echo vowel (also called a schwa) is a “half-u” sound. It has no initial form and is indicated by a crescent to the right of a consonant (്).

• Word-final rule: At the end of a word, it is treated as a vowel sound.
• Medial rule: In the middle of a word, it “cuts off” the inherent a-sound to create a consonant cluster.

The cillakṣaraṃ (or cillǔ letter) is another method to remove the inherent vowel. It is required for specific consonants (ൺ, ൻ, ർ, ൽ, ൾ, ൿ) when they end a word or appear medially without a following vowel.

2.3 Doubled Consonants

Many words utilize doubled consonants, written either horizontally or vertically. A shortened form of the consonant is often used for the second letter in the cluster.

• Triangular markers: The letters ca (ച), ya (യ), and va (വ) use a small triangle shape when doubled.

ച + ച = ച്ച യ + യ = യ്യ വ + വ = വ്വ

• Common Pairs: Doubling is most frequent in the ka and nga (nasals) columns.

2.4 Conjunct Consonants

Conjunct consonants combine two or more different consonants. They are formed by joining characters horizontally at a common stroke or by utilizing the echo vowel marker on the preceding consonant.

• Nasal combinations: Specific nasalization patterns occur with n-sounds.

ങ്ക (ṅka), ഞ്ച (ñca), ണ്ട (ṇṭa), ന്ത (nta), ന്ദ (nda), മ്പ (mpa), ന്റ (ṉṯa)

• Vertical vs. Horizontal: While modern script prefers horizontal clusters, traditional vertical clusters are still encountered.

2.5 Dependent Semivowels

To maintain legibility, specific markers represent dependent semivowels (ya, ra, la, va). These are stylized versions of the full consonants.

ത് + യ = ത്യ (tya) വ് + ര = പ്ര (pra) പ് + ല = പ്ല (pla) സ് + വ = സ്വ (sva)

2.6 Sandhi and Morphological Changes

Sandhi refers to the contraction or joining of words. This process may modify a word’s spelling to reflect natural speech patterns.

• Consonant-Vowel: When a word ending in a consonant meets a word beginning with a vowel, they typically merge (e.g., atǔ + āṇǔ becomes atāṇǔ).
• Vowel-Vowel: Words ending and beginning with vowels also merge (e.g., aniyatti + eṭuttu becomes aniyattiyeṭuttu).

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6. Lesson Two: Reading Practice (Printed Page 68 | Lesson Page 21)

To master the script, practice reading and writing the basic consonants in sequence with every dependent vowel.

ക കാ കി കീ കു കൂ കൃ കെ കേ കൈ കൊ കോ കൗ 
ഖ ഖാ ഖി ഖീ ഖു ഖൂ ഖൃ ഖെ ഖേ ഖൈ ഖൊ ഖോ ഖൗ 
ഗ ഗാ ഗി ഗീ ഗു ഗൂ ഗൃ ഗെ ഗേ ഗൈ ഗൊ ഗോ ഗൗ

Transliteration: ka kā ki kī ku kū kṛ ke kē kai ko kō kau kha khā khi khī khu khū khṛ khe khē khai kho khō khau ga gā gi gī gu gū gṛ ge gē gai go gō gau

Note: the core of all letters should maintain the same height between imaginary parallel lines.

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7. Lesson Two: Exercises (Exercises 1 through 8)

1. Vowel Identification: Identify the initial vowel form for the following sounds: a. Short ‘e’ ________ b. Vocalic ‘r’ ________
2. Consonant Writing: Write the following consonants in a single sequence of curved movements: a. ക ________ b. വ ________
3. Dependent Vowel Application: Add the dependent vowel ‘u’ ( ു ) and ‘ī’ ( ീ ) markers to the following consonants: a. സ ________ b. ല ________
4. Cillakṣaraṃ Recognition: Convert the following basic consonants into their cillǔ forms: a. ന → ________ b. ള → ________
5. Doubling Practice: Write the doubled form of the following characters: a. ത ________ b. പ ________
6. Conjunct Formation: Combine the following consonants into a single syllable: a. ക + ഷ ________ b. സ + ത ________
7. Sandhi Exercise: Join the following words using the rules of Sandhi: a. അത് + ആണ് = ________
8. Sentence Transcription: Write the following sentence in Malayalam Unicode: a. “Where did elder sister go?” ________

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8. Lesson Two: Supplemental Tables and Reference Material (Printed Pages 70–71)

Common Writing Mistakes and Distinctions

Cultural and Technical Notes

Appendix: Script Origins

All writing systems in India, including Malayalam, trace back to the Brahmi script used by King Ashoka in the third century BCE. Modern Malayalam script is both phonetic and syllabic.

Appendix: Reform and Modernity

This guide covers the modern or reformed Malayalam script, established in the 1970s. In the old script, dependent vowels were often joined directly to the consonant body.

Footnotes: All resources on this site are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Funded by a grant (P017A200040) from the U.S. Department of Education’s International and Research Studies program, with additional support from the South Asia Institute, University of Texas at Austin.