{"id":26,"date":"2026-05-11T17:11:38","date_gmt":"2026-05-11T16:11:38","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/moagml\/chapter\/2-lesson-two-introduction-and-overview\/"},"modified":"2026-05-25T09:18:32","modified_gmt":"2026-05-25T08:18:32","slug":"2-lesson-two-introduction-and-overview","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/moagml\/chapter\/2-lesson-two-introduction-and-overview\/","title":{"raw":"2. Lesson Two: Introduction and Overview","rendered":"2. Lesson Two: Introduction and Overview"},"content":{"raw":"

1. Lesson One: Final Page (Printed Page 57 | Lesson Page 10)<\/h2>\r\nThe following concludes the introductory material of the first lesson, focusing on the synthesis of words into sentences and the initial application of phonetic joining rules (Sandhi<\/b>).\r\n

Vocabulary Synthesis<\/h3>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
Malayalam (Unicode)<\/td>\r\nEnglish<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
\u0d2e\u0d15\u0d7b<\/td>\r\nson<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
\u0d2a\u0d1f\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d3f<\/td>\r\ndog<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
\u0d2a\u0d4b\u0d15\u0d3e\u0d02<\/td>\r\nlet's go<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
\u0d1e\u0d3e\u0d7b<\/td>\r\nI<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
\u0d35\u0d40\u0d1f\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d3f\u0d7d<\/td>\r\nhome \/ in the house<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
\u0d2a\u0d4b\u0d15\u0d41\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d41<\/td>\r\ngoing<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
\u0d35\u0d46\u0d33\u0d4d\u0d33\u0d02<\/td>\r\nwater<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
\u0d24\u0d30\u0d42<\/td>\r\nplease give<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
\u0d0e\u0d28\u0d3f\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d4d<\/td>\r\nto me<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
\u0d2a\u0d20\u0d3f\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d3e\u0d7b<\/td>\r\nto study<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
\u0d35\u0d2f\u0d4d\u0d2f<\/td>\r\ndon't feel like \/ cannot<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
\u0d1a\u0d46\u0d1a\u0d4d\u0d1a\u0d3f<\/td>\r\nelder sister<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
\u0d0e\u0d35\u0d3f\u0d1f\u0d46<\/td>\r\nwhere<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
\u0d2a\u0d4b\u0d2f\u0d3f<\/td>\r\nwent<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
\u0d05\u0d24\u0d4d<\/td>\r\nthat \/ it<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
\u0d06\u0d23\u0d4d<\/td>\r\nis<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
\u0d28\u0d3f\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u0d7e\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d4d<\/td>\r\nto you<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
\u0d09\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d4b<\/td>\r\nhave? \/ is there?<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
\u0d05\u0d28\u0d3f\u0d2f\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d3f<\/td>\r\nyounger sister<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
\u0d0e\u0d1f\u0d41\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d41<\/td>\r\ntook<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n

Sentence Construction and Sandhi Notes<\/h3>\r\n
    \r\n \t
  1. Sentence Structure with Spaces<\/b>: In standard writing, words are placed sequentially with spaces.\r\n
      \r\n \t
    • \u0d1e\u0d3e\u0d7b \u0d35\u0d40\u0d1f\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d3f\u0d7d \u0d2a\u0d4b\u0d15\u0d41\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d41. (I am going home.)<\/li>\r\n \t
    • \u0d35\u0d46\u0d33\u0d4d\u0d33\u0d02 \u0d24\u0d30\u0d42. (Please give me some water.)<\/li>\r\n \t
    • \u0d0e\u0d28\u0d3f\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d4d \u0d2a\u0d20\u0d3f\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d3e\u0d7b \u0d35\u0d2f\u0d4d\u0d2f. (I don't feel like studying.)<\/li>\r\n \t
    • \u0d1a\u0d46\u0d1a\u0d4d\u0d1a\u0d3f \u0d0e\u0d35\u0d3f\u0d1f\u0d46 \u0d2a\u0d4b\u0d2f\u0d3f? (Where did elder sister go?)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t
    • Simple Sandhi (Joining)<\/b>: Malayalam frequently joins words, modifying spelling to facilitate fluid speech.\r\n
        \r\n \t
      • \u0d05\u0d24\u0d4d + \u0d06\u0d23\u0d4d \u2192 \u0d05\u0d24\u0d3e\u0d23\u0d4d.<\/b> (That's it.) [Consonant-Vowel joining]<\/li>\r\n \t
      • \u0d28\u0d3f\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u0d7e\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d4d + \u0d09\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d4b? \u2192 \u0d28\u0d3f\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u0d7e\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d41\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d4b?<\/b> (Do you have it\/any?) [Consonant-Vowel joining]<\/li>\r\n \t
      • \u0d05\u0d28\u0d3f\u0d2f\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d3f + \u0d0e\u0d1f\u0d41\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d41? \u2192 \u0d05\u0d28\u0d3f\u0d2f\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d3f\u0d2f\u0d46\u0d1f\u0d41\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d41.<\/b> (Younger sister took it.) [Vowel-Vowel joining]<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n--------------------------------------------------------------------------------\r\n

        2. Lesson Two: Introduction and Overview (Printed Page 58 | Lesson Page 11)<\/h2>\r\n

        Lesson Two: The Malayalam Writing System<\/h2>\r\nThe Malayalam writing system, or script, is both phonetic<\/b> and syllabic<\/b>. It is based on an alphabet where characters represent specific sounds, and these characters are combined to form the syllables used in speech. For English speakers, the script requires memorization of four distinct letter types: initial vowels, consonants, dependent vowels (added to consonants), and combining consonants used for conjunct sounds.\r\n\r\nA primary characteristic of the script is its rounded nature, common to South Indian languages. The system described in this course follows the modern or reformed Malayalam script established in the 1970s, which was designed to facilitate efficient typing and computer entry.\r\n\r\n--------------------------------------------------------------------------------\r\n

        3. Lesson Two: Reference Lists and Vocabulary (Printed Pages 59\u201361)<\/h2>\r\nThe following tables synthesize the foundational elements of the Malayalam script as presented in the reference grammar.\r\n

        Vowels (Initial and Dependent)<\/h3>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
        Initial (Unicode)<\/td>\r\nDependent (Unicode)<\/td>\r\nTransliteration<\/td>\r\nEnglish Meaning\/Usage<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \u0d05<\/td>\r\n(inherent)<\/td>\r\na<\/td>\r\nShort vowel; inherent in all consonants<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \u0d06<\/td>\r\n\u0d3e<\/td>\r\n\u0101<\/td>\r\nLong version of 'a'<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \u0d07<\/td>\r\n\u0d3f<\/td>\r\ni<\/td>\r\nShort 'i'<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \u0d08<\/td>\r\n\u0d40<\/td>\r\n\u012b<\/td>\r\nLong 'i'<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \u0d09<\/td>\r\n\u0d41<\/td>\r\nu<\/td>\r\nShort 'u'<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \u0d0a<\/td>\r\n\u0d42<\/td>\r\n\u016b<\/td>\r\nLong 'u'<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \u0d0b<\/td>\r\n\u0d43<\/td>\r\n\u1e5b<\/td>\r\nVocalic 'r'<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \u0d0e<\/td>\r\n\u0d46<\/td>\r\ne<\/td>\r\nShort 'e'<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \u0d0f<\/td>\r\n\u0d47<\/td>\r\n\u0113<\/td>\r\nLong 'e'<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \u0d10<\/td>\r\n\u0d48<\/td>\r\nai<\/td>\r\nDiphthong 'ai'<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \u0d12<\/td>\r\n\u0d4a<\/td>\r\no<\/td>\r\nShort 'o'<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \u0d13<\/td>\r\n\u0d4b<\/td>\r\n\u014d<\/td>\r\nLong 'o'<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \u0d14<\/td>\r\n\u0d57<\/td>\r\nau<\/td>\r\nDiphthong 'au'<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n

        Consonant Modifications and Terminology<\/h3>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
        Malayalam (Unicode)<\/td>\r\nTransliteration<\/td>\r\nEnglish Meaning\/Usage<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \u0d05\u0d24\u0d4d<\/td>\r\nat\u01d4<\/td>\r\n\"that one\" (Example of final echo vowel)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \u0d28\u0d3e\u0d1f\u0d4d<\/td>\r\nn\u0101\u1e6d\u01d4<\/td>\r\n\"country, region\" (Example of final echo vowel)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \u0d09\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d2a\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d3f<\/td>\r\nutpatti<\/td>\r\n\"origin\" (Example of medial echo vowel)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \u0d15\u0d37\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d02<\/td>\r\nka\u1e63\u1e6da\u1e43<\/td>\r\n\"trouble, problem\" (Example of medial echo vowel)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \u0d2e\u0d3e\u0d37\u0d4d<\/td>\r\nm\u0101\u1e63<\/td>\r\n\"teacher\" (Consonant ending)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \u0d21\u0d47\u0d35\u0d3f\u0d21\u0d4d<\/td>\r\n\u1e0d\u0113vi\u1e0d<\/td>\r\n\"David\" (Name ending)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \u0d2e\u0d28\u0d38\u0d4d\u0d38\u0d4d<\/td>\r\nmanass\u01d4<\/td>\r\n\"mind, heart\"<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
        \u0d24\u0d46\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u0d4d<\/td>\r\nte\u1e45\u1e45\u01d4<\/td>\r\n\"coconut tree\"<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nUsage Note:<\/b> Consonants always have an inherent a-sound, unless they are marked with a different dependent vowel or \u201ccut off\u201d with the special sign that looks like small crescent, for example \u0d24\u0d4d \u0d32\u0d4d, or other marker.\r\n\r\n--------------------------------------------------------------------------------\r\n

        4. Lesson Two: Conversations and Dialogues (Printed Pages 62\u201363)<\/h2>\r\nThe following sentence structures illustrate standard word spacing and the application of Sandhi<\/b> in conversational contexts.\r\n\r\nSpeaker 1:<\/b> \u0d1e\u0d3e\u0d7b \u0d35\u0d40\u0d1f\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d3f\u0d7d \u0d2a\u0d4b\u0d15\u0d41\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d41. \/ I am going home. Speaker 2:<\/b> \u0d35\u0d46\u0d33\u0d4d\u0d33\u0d02 \u0d24\u0d30\u0d42. \/ Please give me some water. Speaker 1:<\/b> \u0d0e\u0d28\u0d3f\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d4d \u0d2a\u0d20\u0d3f\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d3e\u0d7b \u0d35\u0d2f\u0d4d\u0d2f. \/ I don't feel like studying. Speaker 2:<\/b> \u0d1a\u0d46\u0d1a\u0d4d\u0d1a\u0d3f \u0d0e\u0d35\u0d3f\u0d1f\u0d46 \u0d2a\u0d4b\u0d2f\u0d3f? \/ Where did elder sister go?\r\n\r\nExample of Joined Speech (Sandhi):<\/b> Speaker 1:<\/b> \u0d05\u0d24\u0d4d \u0d06\u0d23\u0d4d. \/ That is (it). Speaker 2:<\/b> \u0d05\u0d24\u0d3e\u0d23\u0d4d. \/ That's it. Speaker 1:<\/b> \u0d28\u0d3f\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u0d7e\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d4d \u0d09\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d4b? \/ Do you have (it)? Speaker 2:<\/b> \u0d28\u0d3f\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u0d7e\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d41\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d4b? \/ Do you have it?\r\n\r\n--------------------------------------------------------------------------------\r\n

        5. Lesson Two: Grammar Notes (Sections 2.1 through 2.6)<\/h2>\r\n

        2.1 Initial and Dependent Vowels<\/h3>\r\nIf a vowel begins a word, the initial vowel<\/b> form must be used. However, when a vowel occurs in the middle or end of a word following a consonant, it must take its dependent vowel<\/b> form to change the inherent a-sound<\/b> of the consonant. In the modern script, these markers generally stand apart from the consonant, positioned to the right, though some (\u0d12, \u0d13, \u0d10, and \u0d14) appear on both sides.\r\n\r\n\u0d15 + \u0d06 = \u0d15\u0d3e (k\u0101)\r\n

        2.2 Echo Vowel (Schwa) and Cillak\u1e63ara\u1e43<\/h3>\r\nThe echo vowel<\/b> (also called a schwa<\/b>) is a \"half-u\" sound. It has no initial form and is indicated by a crescent to the right of a consonant (\u0d4d).\r\n
          \r\n \t
        • Word-final rule<\/b>: At the end of a word, it is treated as a vowel sound.<\/li>\r\n \t
        • Medial rule<\/b>: In the middle of a word, it \"cuts off\" the inherent a-sound<\/b> to create a consonant cluster.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe cillak\u1e63ara\u1e43<\/b> (or cill\u01d4<\/b> letter) is another method to remove the inherent vowel. It is required for specific consonants (\u0d7a, \u0d7b, \u0d7c, \u0d7d, \u0d7e, \u0d7f) when they end a word or appear medially without a following vowel.\r\n

          2.3 Doubled Consonants<\/h3>\r\nMany words utilize doubled consonants<\/b>, written either horizontally or vertically. A shortened form of the consonant is often used for the second letter in the cluster.\r\n
            \r\n \t
          • Triangular markers<\/b>: The letters ca<\/i> (\u0d1a), ya<\/i> (\u0d2f), and va<\/i> (\u0d35) use a small triangle shape when doubled.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n\u0d1a + \u0d1a = \u0d1a\u0d4d\u0d1a \u0d2f + \u0d2f = \u0d2f\u0d4d\u0d2f \u0d35 + \u0d35 = \u0d35\u0d4d\u0d35\r\n
              \r\n \t
            • Common Pairs<\/b>: Doubling is most frequent in the ka<\/b> and nga<\/b> (nasals) columns.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n

              2.4 Conjunct Consonants<\/h3>\r\nConjunct consonants<\/b> combine two or more different consonants. They are formed by joining characters horizontally at a common stroke or by utilizing the echo vowel<\/b> marker on the preceding consonant.\r\n
                \r\n \t
              • Nasal combinations<\/b>: Specific nasalization<\/b> patterns occur with n-sounds<\/i>.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d15 (\u1e45ka), \u0d1e\u0d4d\u0d1a (\u00f1ca), \u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f (\u1e47\u1e6da), \u0d28\u0d4d\u0d24 (nta), \u0d28\u0d4d\u0d26 (nda), \u0d2e\u0d4d\u0d2a (mpa), \u0d28\u0d4d\u0d31 (\u1e49\u1e6fa)\r\n
                  \r\n \t
                • Vertical vs. Horizontal<\/b>: While modern script prefers horizontal clusters, traditional vertical clusters are still encountered.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n

                  2.5 Dependent Semivowels<\/h3>\r\nTo maintain legibility, specific markers represent dependent semivowels<\/b> (ya, ra, la, va<\/i>). These are stylized versions of the full consonants.\r\n\r\n\u0d24\u0d4d + \u0d2f = \u0d24\u0d4d\u0d2f (tya) \u0d35\u0d4d + \u0d30 = \u0d2a\u0d4d\u0d30 (pra) \u0d2a\u0d4d + \u0d32 = \u0d2a\u0d4d\u0d32 (pla) \u0d38\u0d4d + \u0d35 = \u0d38\u0d4d\u0d35 (sva)\r\n

                  2.6 Sandhi and Morphological Changes<\/h3>\r\nSandhi<\/b> refers to the contraction or joining of words. This process may modify a word's spelling to reflect natural speech patterns.\r\n
                    \r\n \t
                  • Consonant-Vowel<\/b>: When a word ending in a consonant meets a word beginning with a vowel, they typically merge (e.g., at\u01d4 + \u0101\u1e47\u01d4<\/i> becomes at\u0101\u1e47\u01d4<\/i>).<\/li>\r\n \t
                  • Vowel-Vowel<\/b>: Words ending and beginning with vowels also merge (e.g., aniyatti + e\u1e6duttu<\/i> becomes aniyattiye\u1e6duttu<\/i>).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n--------------------------------------------------------------------------------\r\n

                    6. Lesson Two: Reading Practice (Printed Page 68 | Lesson Page 21)<\/h2>\r\nTo master the script, practice reading and writing the basic consonants in sequence with every dependent vowel.\r\n
                    \u0d15 \u0d15\u0d3e \u0d15\u0d3f \u0d15\u0d40 \u0d15\u0d41 \u0d15\u0d42 \u0d15\u0d43 \u0d15\u0d46 \u0d15\u0d47 \u0d15\u0d48 \u0d15\u0d4a \u0d15\u0d4b \u0d15\u0d57 \r\n\u0d16 \u0d16\u0d3e \u0d16\u0d3f \u0d16\u0d40 \u0d16\u0d41 \u0d16\u0d42 \u0d16\u0d43 \u0d16\u0d46 \u0d16\u0d47 \u0d16\u0d48 \u0d16\u0d4a \u0d16\u0d4b \u0d16\u0d57 \r\n\u0d17 \u0d17\u0d3e \u0d17\u0d3f \u0d17\u0d40 \u0d17\u0d41 \u0d17\u0d42 \u0d17\u0d43 \u0d17\u0d46 \u0d17\u0d47 \u0d17\u0d48 \u0d17\u0d4a \u0d17\u0d4b \u0d17\u0d57\r\n<\/code><\/pre>\r\nTransliteration:<\/b> ka k\u0101 ki k\u012b ku k\u016b k\u1e5b ke k\u0113 kai ko k\u014d kau kha kh\u0101 khi kh\u012b khu kh\u016b kh\u1e5b khe kh\u0113 khai kho kh\u014d khau ga g\u0101 gi g\u012b gu g\u016b g\u1e5b ge g\u0113 gai go g\u014d gau\r\n\r\nNote: the core of all letters should maintain the same height between imaginary parallel lines.\r\n\r\n--------------------------------------------------------------------------------\r\n
                    7. Lesson Two: Exercises (Exercises 1 through 8)<\/h2>\r\n
                      \r\n \t
                    1. Vowel Identification<\/b>: Identify the initial vowel<\/b> form for the following sounds: a. Short 'e' ________ b. Vocalic 'r' ________<\/li>\r\n \t
                    2. Consonant Writing<\/b>: Write the following consonants in a single sequence of curved movements: a. \u0d15 ________ b. \u0d35 ________<\/li>\r\n \t
                    3. Dependent Vowel Application<\/b>: Add the dependent vowel<\/b> 'u' ( \u0d41 ) and '\u012b' ( \u0d40 ) markers to the following consonants: a. \u0d38 ________ b. \u0d32 ________<\/li>\r\n \t
                    4. Cillak\u1e63ara\u1e43 Recognition<\/b>: Convert the following basic consonants into their cill\u01d4<\/b> forms: a. \u0d28 \u2192 ________ b. \u0d33 \u2192 ________<\/li>\r\n \t
                    5. Doubling Practice<\/b>: Write the doubled form of the following characters: a. \u0d24 ________ b. \u0d2a ________<\/li>\r\n \t
                    6. Conjunct Formation<\/b>: Combine the following consonants into a single syllable: a. \u0d15 + \u0d37 ________ b. \u0d38 + \u0d24 ________<\/li>\r\n \t
                    7. Sandhi Exercise<\/b>: Join the following words using the rules of Sandhi<\/b>: a. \u0d05\u0d24\u0d4d + \u0d06\u0d23\u0d4d = ________<\/li>\r\n \t
                    8. Sentence Transcription<\/b>: Write the following sentence in Malayalam Unicode: a. \"Where did elder sister go?\" ________<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n--------------------------------------------------------------------------------\r\n
                      8. Lesson Two: Supplemental Tables and Reference Material (Printed Pages 70\u201371)<\/h2>\r\n
                      Common Writing Mistakes and Distinctions<\/h3>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
                      Error Type<\/td>\r\nDescription<\/td>\r\nExamples<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                      Height Errors<\/b><\/td>\r\nDependent vowel<\/b> markers i, \u012b<\/i>, and echo vowel<\/b> must be clearly above the line.<\/td>\r\n\u0d2a\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d3f vs \u0d1f\u0d40<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                      Sub-line Extensions<\/b><\/td>\r\nMarkers for u, \u016b, \u1e5b<\/i> and dependent semivowels<\/b> must extend below the line.<\/td>\r\n\u0d35\u0d41, \u0d15\u0d43, \u0d35\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d4b<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                      Character Confusion<\/b><\/td>\r\nPa<\/i> (\u0d2a) and va<\/i> (\u0d35) are often confused; pa<\/i> has a smaller initial stroke.<\/td>\r\n\u0d2a vs \u0d35<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                      Mirror Inversion<\/b><\/td>\r\nSa<\/i> (\u0d38) and da<\/i> (\u0d21) are mirrored versions of each other.<\/td>\r\n\u0d38 vs \u0d21<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
                      Vowel Confusion<\/b><\/td>\r\nDependent vowel<\/b> \u1e5b<\/i> (\u0d43) and dependent semivowel<\/b> ya<\/i> (\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d2f) are similar.<\/td>\r\n\u0d24\u0d43 vs \u0d24\u0d4d\u0d2f<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n
                      Cultural and Technical Notes<\/h3>\r\n
                      Appendix: Script Origins<\/h3>\r\nAll writing systems in India, including Malayalam, trace back to the Brahmi script used by King Ashoka in the third century BCE. Modern Malayalam script is both phonetic<\/b> and syllabic<\/b>.\r\n
                      Appendix: Reform and Modernity<\/h3>\r\nThis guide covers the modern or reformed Malayalam script, established in the 1970s. In the old script, dependent vowels<\/b> were often joined directly to the consonant body.\r\n\r\nFootnotes:<\/b> All resources on this site are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Funded by a grant (P017A200040) from the U.S. Department of Education\u2019s International and Research Studies program, with additional support from the South Asia Institute, University of Texas at Austin.","rendered":"
                      1. Lesson One: Final Page (Printed Page 57 | Lesson Page 10)<\/h2>\n
                      The following concludes the introductory material of the first lesson, focusing on the synthesis of words into sentences and the initial application of phonetic joining rules (Sandhi<\/b>).<\/p>\n
                      Vocabulary Synthesis<\/h3>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
                      Malayalam (Unicode)<\/td>\nEnglish<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                      \u0d2e\u0d15\u0d7b<\/td>\nson<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                      \u0d2a\u0d1f\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d3f<\/td>\ndog<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                      \u0d2a\u0d4b\u0d15\u0d3e\u0d02<\/td>\nlet’s go<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                      \u0d1e\u0d3e\u0d7b<\/td>\nI<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                      \u0d35\u0d40\u0d1f\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d3f\u0d7d<\/td>\nhome \/ in the house<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                      \u0d2a\u0d4b\u0d15\u0d41\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d41<\/td>\ngoing<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                      \u0d35\u0d46\u0d33\u0d4d\u0d33\u0d02<\/td>\nwater<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                      \u0d24\u0d30\u0d42<\/td>\nplease give<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                      \u0d0e\u0d28\u0d3f\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d4d<\/td>\nto me<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                      \u0d2a\u0d20\u0d3f\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d3e\u0d7b<\/td>\nto study<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                      \u0d35\u0d2f\u0d4d\u0d2f<\/td>\ndon’t feel like \/ cannot<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                      \u0d1a\u0d46\u0d1a\u0d4d\u0d1a\u0d3f<\/td>\nelder sister<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                      \u0d0e\u0d35\u0d3f\u0d1f\u0d46<\/td>\nwhere<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                      \u0d2a\u0d4b\u0d2f\u0d3f<\/td>\nwent<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                      \u0d05\u0d24\u0d4d<\/td>\nthat \/ it<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                      \u0d06\u0d23\u0d4d<\/td>\nis<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                      \u0d28\u0d3f\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u0d7e\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d4d<\/td>\nto you<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                      \u0d09\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d4b<\/td>\nhave? \/ is there?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                      \u0d05\u0d28\u0d3f\u0d2f\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d3f<\/td>\nyounger sister<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                      \u0d0e\u0d1f\u0d41\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d41<\/td>\ntook<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n
                      Sentence Construction and Sandhi Notes<\/h3>\n
                        \n
                      1. Sentence Structure with Spaces<\/b>: In standard writing, words are placed sequentially with spaces.\n
                          \n
                        • \u0d1e\u0d3e\u0d7b \u0d35\u0d40\u0d1f\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d3f\u0d7d \u0d2a\u0d4b\u0d15\u0d41\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d41. (I am going home.)<\/li>\n
                        • \u0d35\u0d46\u0d33\u0d4d\u0d33\u0d02 \u0d24\u0d30\u0d42. (Please give me some water.)<\/li>\n
                        • \u0d0e\u0d28\u0d3f\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d4d \u0d2a\u0d20\u0d3f\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d3e\u0d7b \u0d35\u0d2f\u0d4d\u0d2f. (I don’t feel like studying.)<\/li>\n
                        • \u0d1a\u0d46\u0d1a\u0d4d\u0d1a\u0d3f \u0d0e\u0d35\u0d3f\u0d1f\u0d46 \u0d2a\u0d4b\u0d2f\u0d3f? (Where did elder sister go?)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n
                        • Simple Sandhi (Joining)<\/b>: Malayalam frequently joins words, modifying spelling to facilitate fluid speech.\n
                            \n
                          • \u0d05\u0d24\u0d4d + \u0d06\u0d23\u0d4d \u2192 \u0d05\u0d24\u0d3e\u0d23\u0d4d.<\/b> (That’s it.) [Consonant-Vowel joining]<\/li>\n
                          • \u0d28\u0d3f\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u0d7e\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d4d + \u0d09\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d4b? \u2192 \u0d28\u0d3f\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u0d7e\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d41\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d4b?<\/b> (Do you have it\/any?) [Consonant-Vowel joining]<\/li>\n
                          • \u0d05\u0d28\u0d3f\u0d2f\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d3f + \u0d0e\u0d1f\u0d41\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d41? \u2192 \u0d05\u0d28\u0d3f\u0d2f\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d3f\u0d2f\u0d46\u0d1f\u0d41\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d41.<\/b> (Younger sister took it.) [Vowel-Vowel joining]<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
                            ——————————————————————————–<\/p>\n
                            2. Lesson Two: Introduction and Overview (Printed Page 58 | Lesson Page 11)<\/h2>\n
                            Lesson Two: The Malayalam Writing System<\/h2>\n
                            The Malayalam writing system, or script, is both phonetic<\/b> and syllabic<\/b>. It is based on an alphabet where characters represent specific sounds, and these characters are combined to form the syllables used in speech. For English speakers, the script requires memorization of four distinct letter types: initial vowels, consonants, dependent vowels (added to consonants), and combining consonants used for conjunct sounds.<\/p>\n
                            A primary characteristic of the script is its rounded nature, common to South Indian languages. The system described in this course follows the modern or reformed Malayalam script established in the 1970s, which was designed to facilitate efficient typing and computer entry.<\/p>\n
                            ——————————————————————————–<\/p>\n
                            3. Lesson Two: Reference Lists and Vocabulary (Printed Pages 59\u201361)<\/h2>\n
                            The following tables synthesize the foundational elements of the Malayalam script as presented in the reference grammar.<\/p>\n
                            Vowels (Initial and Dependent)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
                            Initial (Unicode)<\/td>\nDependent (Unicode)<\/td>\nTransliteration<\/td>\nEnglish Meaning\/Usage<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                            \u0d05<\/td>\n(inherent)<\/td>\na<\/td>\nShort vowel; inherent in all consonants<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                            \u0d06<\/td>\n\u0d3e<\/td>\n\u0101<\/td>\nLong version of ‘a’<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                            \u0d07<\/td>\n\u0d3f<\/td>\ni<\/td>\nShort ‘i’<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                            \u0d08<\/td>\n\u0d40<\/td>\n\u012b<\/td>\nLong ‘i’<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                            \u0d09<\/td>\n\u0d41<\/td>\nu<\/td>\nShort ‘u’<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                            \u0d0a<\/td>\n\u0d42<\/td>\n\u016b<\/td>\nLong ‘u’<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                            \u0d0b<\/td>\n\u0d43<\/td>\n\u1e5b<\/td>\nVocalic ‘r’<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                            \u0d0e<\/td>\n\u0d46<\/td>\ne<\/td>\nShort ‘e’<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                            \u0d0f<\/td>\n\u0d47<\/td>\n\u0113<\/td>\nLong ‘e’<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                            \u0d10<\/td>\n\u0d48<\/td>\nai<\/td>\nDiphthong ‘ai’<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                            \u0d12<\/td>\n\u0d4a<\/td>\no<\/td>\nShort ‘o’<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                            \u0d13<\/td>\n\u0d4b<\/td>\n\u014d<\/td>\nLong ‘o’<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                            \u0d14<\/td>\n\u0d57<\/td>\nau<\/td>\nDiphthong ‘au’<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n
                            Consonant Modifications and Terminology<\/h3>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
                            Malayalam (Unicode)<\/td>\nTransliteration<\/td>\nEnglish Meaning\/Usage<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                            \u0d05\u0d24\u0d4d<\/td>\nat\u01d4<\/td>\n“that one” (Example of final echo vowel)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                            \u0d28\u0d3e\u0d1f\u0d4d<\/td>\nn\u0101\u1e6d\u01d4<\/td>\n“country, region” (Example of final echo vowel)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                            \u0d09\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d2a\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d3f<\/td>\nutpatti<\/td>\n“origin” (Example of medial echo vowel)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                            \u0d15\u0d37\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d02<\/td>\nka\u1e63\u1e6da\u1e43<\/td>\n“trouble, problem” (Example of medial echo vowel)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                            \u0d2e\u0d3e\u0d37\u0d4d<\/td>\nm\u0101\u1e63<\/td>\n“teacher” (Consonant ending)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                            \u0d21\u0d47\u0d35\u0d3f\u0d21\u0d4d<\/td>\n\u1e0d\u0113vi\u1e0d<\/td>\n“David” (Name ending)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                            \u0d2e\u0d28\u0d38\u0d4d\u0d38\u0d4d<\/td>\nmanass\u01d4<\/td>\n“mind, heart”<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                            \u0d24\u0d46\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u0d4d<\/td>\nte\u1e45\u1e45\u01d4<\/td>\n“coconut tree”<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n
                            Usage Note:<\/b> Consonants always have an inherent a-sound, unless they are marked with a different dependent vowel or \u201ccut off\u201d with the special sign that looks like small crescent, for example \u0d24\u0d4d \u0d32\u0d4d, or other marker.<\/p>\n
                            ——————————————————————————–<\/p>\n
                            4. Lesson Two: Conversations and Dialogues (Printed Pages 62\u201363)<\/h2>\n
                            The following sentence structures illustrate standard word spacing and the application of Sandhi<\/b> in conversational contexts.<\/p>\n
                            Speaker 1:<\/b> \u0d1e\u0d3e\u0d7b \u0d35\u0d40\u0d1f\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d3f\u0d7d \u0d2a\u0d4b\u0d15\u0d41\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d41. \/ I am going home. Speaker 2:<\/b> \u0d35\u0d46\u0d33\u0d4d\u0d33\u0d02 \u0d24\u0d30\u0d42. \/ Please give me some water. Speaker 1:<\/b> \u0d0e\u0d28\u0d3f\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d4d \u0d2a\u0d20\u0d3f\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d3e\u0d7b \u0d35\u0d2f\u0d4d\u0d2f. \/ I don’t feel like studying. Speaker 2:<\/b> \u0d1a\u0d46\u0d1a\u0d4d\u0d1a\u0d3f \u0d0e\u0d35\u0d3f\u0d1f\u0d46 \u0d2a\u0d4b\u0d2f\u0d3f? \/ Where did elder sister go?<\/p>\n
                            Example of Joined Speech (Sandhi):<\/b> Speaker 1:<\/b> \u0d05\u0d24\u0d4d \u0d06\u0d23\u0d4d. \/ That is (it). Speaker 2:<\/b> \u0d05\u0d24\u0d3e\u0d23\u0d4d. \/ That’s it. Speaker 1:<\/b> \u0d28\u0d3f\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u0d7e\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d4d \u0d09\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d4b? \/ Do you have (it)? Speaker 2:<\/b> \u0d28\u0d3f\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u0d7e\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d41\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d4b? \/ Do you have it?<\/p>\n
                            ——————————————————————————–<\/p>\n
                            5. Lesson Two: Grammar Notes (Sections 2.1 through 2.6)<\/h2>\n
                            2.1 Initial and Dependent Vowels<\/h3>\n
                            If a vowel begins a word, the initial vowel<\/b> form must be used. However, when a vowel occurs in the middle or end of a word following a consonant, it must take its dependent vowel<\/b> form to change the inherent a-sound<\/b> of the consonant. In the modern script, these markers generally stand apart from the consonant, positioned to the right, though some (\u0d12, \u0d13, \u0d10, and \u0d14) appear on both sides.<\/p>\n
                            \u0d15 + \u0d06 = \u0d15\u0d3e (k\u0101)<\/p>\n
                            2.2 Echo Vowel (Schwa) and Cillak\u1e63ara\u1e43<\/h3>\n
                            The echo vowel<\/b> (also called a schwa<\/b>) is a “half-u” sound. It has no initial form and is indicated by a crescent to the right of a consonant (\u0d4d).<\/p>\n
                              \n
                            • Word-final rule<\/b>: At the end of a word, it is treated as a vowel sound.<\/li>\n
                            • Medial rule<\/b>: In the middle of a word, it “cuts off” the inherent a-sound<\/b> to create a consonant cluster.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
                              The cillak\u1e63ara\u1e43<\/b> (or cill\u01d4<\/b> letter) is another method to remove the inherent vowel. It is required for specific consonants (\u0d7a, \u0d7b, \u0d7c, \u0d7d, \u0d7e, \u0d7f) when they end a word or appear medially without a following vowel.<\/p>\n
                              2.3 Doubled Consonants<\/h3>\n
                              Many words utilize doubled consonants<\/b>, written either horizontally or vertically. A shortened form of the consonant is often used for the second letter in the cluster.<\/p>\n
                                \n
                              • Triangular markers<\/b>: The letters ca<\/i> (\u0d1a), ya<\/i> (\u0d2f), and va<\/i> (\u0d35) use a small triangle shape when doubled.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
                                \u0d1a + \u0d1a = \u0d1a\u0d4d\u0d1a \u0d2f + \u0d2f = \u0d2f\u0d4d\u0d2f \u0d35 + \u0d35 = \u0d35\u0d4d\u0d35<\/p>\n
                                  \n
                                • Common Pairs<\/b>: Doubling is most frequent in the ka<\/b> and nga<\/b> (nasals) columns.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
                                  2.4 Conjunct Consonants<\/h3>\n
                                  Conjunct consonants<\/b> combine two or more different consonants. They are formed by joining characters horizontally at a common stroke or by utilizing the echo vowel<\/b> marker on the preceding consonant.<\/p>\n
                                    \n
                                  • Nasal combinations<\/b>: Specific nasalization<\/b> patterns occur with n-sounds<\/i>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
                                    \u0d19\u0d4d\u0d15 (\u1e45ka), \u0d1e\u0d4d\u0d1a (\u00f1ca), \u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f (\u1e47\u1e6da), \u0d28\u0d4d\u0d24 (nta), \u0d28\u0d4d\u0d26 (nda), \u0d2e\u0d4d\u0d2a (mpa), \u0d28\u0d4d\u0d31 (\u1e49\u1e6fa)<\/p>\n
                                      \n
                                    • Vertical vs. Horizontal<\/b>: While modern script prefers horizontal clusters, traditional vertical clusters are still encountered.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
                                      2.5 Dependent Semivowels<\/h3>\n
                                      To maintain legibility, specific markers represent dependent semivowels<\/b> (ya, ra, la, va<\/i>). These are stylized versions of the full consonants.<\/p>\n
                                      \u0d24\u0d4d + \u0d2f = \u0d24\u0d4d\u0d2f (tya) \u0d35\u0d4d + \u0d30 = \u0d2a\u0d4d\u0d30 (pra) \u0d2a\u0d4d + \u0d32 = \u0d2a\u0d4d\u0d32 (pla) \u0d38\u0d4d + \u0d35 = \u0d38\u0d4d\u0d35 (sva)<\/p>\n
                                      2.6 Sandhi and Morphological Changes<\/h3>\n
                                      Sandhi<\/b> refers to the contraction or joining of words. This process may modify a word’s spelling to reflect natural speech patterns.<\/p>\n
                                        \n
                                      • Consonant-Vowel<\/b>: When a word ending in a consonant meets a word beginning with a vowel, they typically merge (e.g., at\u01d4 + \u0101\u1e47\u01d4<\/i> becomes at\u0101\u1e47\u01d4<\/i>).<\/li>\n
                                      • Vowel-Vowel<\/b>: Words ending and beginning with vowels also merge (e.g., aniyatti + e\u1e6duttu<\/i> becomes aniyattiye\u1e6duttu<\/i>).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
                                        ——————————————————————————–<\/p>\n
                                        6. Lesson Two: Reading Practice (Printed Page 68 | Lesson Page 21)<\/h2>\n
                                        To master the script, practice reading and writing the basic consonants in sequence with every dependent vowel.<\/p>\n
                                        \u0d15 \u0d15\u0d3e \u0d15\u0d3f \u0d15\u0d40 \u0d15\u0d41 \u0d15\u0d42 \u0d15\u0d43 \u0d15\u0d46 \u0d15\u0d47 \u0d15\u0d48 \u0d15\u0d4a \u0d15\u0d4b \u0d15\u0d57 \r\n\u0d16 \u0d16\u0d3e \u0d16\u0d3f \u0d16\u0d40 \u0d16\u0d41 \u0d16\u0d42 \u0d16\u0d43 \u0d16\u0d46 \u0d16\u0d47 \u0d16\u0d48 \u0d16\u0d4a \u0d16\u0d4b \u0d16\u0d57 \r\n\u0d17 \u0d17\u0d3e \u0d17\u0d3f \u0d17\u0d40 \u0d17\u0d41 \u0d17\u0d42 \u0d17\u0d43 \u0d17\u0d46 \u0d17\u0d47 \u0d17\u0d48 \u0d17\u0d4a \u0d17\u0d4b \u0d17\u0d57\r\n<\/code><\/pre>\n
                                        Transliteration:<\/b> ka k\u0101 ki k\u012b ku k\u016b k\u1e5b ke k\u0113 kai ko k\u014d kau kha kh\u0101 khi kh\u012b khu kh\u016b kh\u1e5b khe kh\u0113 khai kho kh\u014d khau ga g\u0101 gi g\u012b gu g\u016b g\u1e5b ge g\u0113 gai go g\u014d gau<\/p>\n
                                        Note: the core of all letters should maintain the same height between imaginary parallel lines.<\/p>\n
                                        ——————————————————————————–<\/p>\n
                                        7. Lesson Two: Exercises (Exercises 1 through 8)<\/h2>\n
                                          \n
                                        1. Vowel Identification<\/b>: Identify the initial vowel<\/b> form for the following sounds: a. Short ‘e’ ________ b. Vocalic ‘r’ ________<\/li>\n
                                        2. Consonant Writing<\/b>: Write the following consonants in a single sequence of curved movements: a. \u0d15 ________ b. \u0d35 ________<\/li>\n
                                        3. Dependent Vowel Application<\/b>: Add the dependent vowel<\/b> ‘u’ ( \u0d41 ) and ‘\u012b’ ( \u0d40 ) markers to the following consonants: a. \u0d38 ________ b. \u0d32 ________<\/li>\n
                                        4. Cillak\u1e63ara\u1e43 Recognition<\/b>: Convert the following basic consonants into their cill\u01d4<\/b> forms: a. \u0d28 \u2192 ________ b. \u0d33 \u2192 ________<\/li>\n
                                        5. Doubling Practice<\/b>: Write the doubled form of the following characters: a. \u0d24 ________ b. \u0d2a ________<\/li>\n
                                        6. Conjunct Formation<\/b>: Combine the following consonants into a single syllable: a. \u0d15 + \u0d37 ________ b. \u0d38 + \u0d24 ________<\/li>\n
                                        7. Sandhi Exercise<\/b>: Join the following words using the rules of Sandhi<\/b>: a. \u0d05\u0d24\u0d4d + \u0d06\u0d23\u0d4d = ________<\/li>\n
                                        8. Sentence Transcription<\/b>: Write the following sentence in Malayalam Unicode: a. “Where did elder sister go?” ________<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n
                                          ——————————————————————————–<\/p>\n
                                          8. Lesson Two: Supplemental Tables and Reference Material (Printed Pages 70\u201371)<\/h2>\n
                                          Common Writing Mistakes and Distinctions<\/h3>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
                                          Error Type<\/td>\nDescription<\/td>\nExamples<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                          Height Errors<\/b><\/td>\nDependent vowel<\/b> markers i, \u012b<\/i>, and echo vowel<\/b> must be clearly above the line.<\/td>\n\u0d2a\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d3f vs \u0d1f\u0d40<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                          Sub-line Extensions<\/b><\/td>\nMarkers for u, \u016b, \u1e5b<\/i> and dependent semivowels<\/b> must extend below the line.<\/td>\n\u0d35\u0d41, \u0d15\u0d43, \u0d35\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d4b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                          Character Confusion<\/b><\/td>\nPa<\/i> (\u0d2a) and va<\/i> (\u0d35) are often confused; pa<\/i> has a smaller initial stroke.<\/td>\n\u0d2a vs \u0d35<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                          Mirror Inversion<\/b><\/td>\nSa<\/i> (\u0d38) and da<\/i> (\u0d21) are mirrored versions of each other.<\/td>\n\u0d38 vs \u0d21<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
                                          Vowel Confusion<\/b><\/td>\nDependent vowel<\/b> \u1e5b<\/i> (\u0d43) and dependent semivowel<\/b> ya<\/i> (\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d2f) are similar.<\/td>\n\u0d24\u0d43 vs \u0d24\u0d4d\u0d2f<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n
                                          Cultural and Technical Notes<\/h3>\n
                                          Appendix: Script Origins<\/h3>\n
                                          All writing systems in India, including Malayalam, trace back to the Brahmi script used by King Ashoka in the third century BCE. Modern Malayalam script is both phonetic<\/b> and syllabic<\/b>.<\/p>\n
                                          Appendix: Reform and Modernity<\/h3>\n
                                          This guide covers the modern or reformed Malayalam script, established in the 1970s. In the old script, dependent vowels<\/b> were often joined directly to the consonant body.<\/p>\n
                                          Footnotes:<\/b> All resources on this site are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Funded by a grant (P017A200040) from the U.S. Department of Education\u2019s International and Research Studies program, with additional support from the South Asia Institute, University of Texas at Austin.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"menu_order":3,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-26","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":21,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/moagml\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/26","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/moagml\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/moagml\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/moagml\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"version-history":[{"count":3,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/moagml\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/26\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":126,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/moagml\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/26\/revisions\/126"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/moagml\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/21"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/moagml\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/26\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/moagml\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=26"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/moagml\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=26"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/moagml\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=26"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/moagml\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=26"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}