{"id":20,"date":"2026-05-06T16:41:20","date_gmt":"2026-05-06T15:41:20","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundertml\/front-matter\/%e0%b4%b5%e0%b5%8d%e0%b4%af%e0%b4%be%e0%b4%95%e0%b4%b0%e0%b4%a3-%e0%b4%9a%e0%b5%8b%e0%b4%a6%e0%b5%8d%e0%b4%af%e0%b5%8b%e0%b4%a4%e0%b5%8d%e0%b4%a4%e0%b4%b0%e0%b4%82\/"},"modified":"2026-05-06T16:41:20","modified_gmt":"2026-05-06T15:41:20","slug":"%e0%b4%b5%e0%b5%8d%e0%b4%af%e0%b4%be%e0%b4%95%e0%b4%b0%e0%b4%a3-%e0%b4%9a%e0%b5%8b%e0%b4%a6%e0%b5%8d%e0%b4%af%e0%b5%8b%e0%b4%a4%e0%b5%8d%e0%b4%a4%e0%b4%b0%e0%b4%82","status":"publish","type":"front-matter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundertml\/front-matter\/%e0%b4%b5%e0%b5%8d%e0%b4%af%e0%b4%be%e0%b4%95%e0%b4%b0%e0%b4%a3-%e0%b4%9a%e0%b5%8b%e0%b4%a6%e0%b5%8d%e0%b4%af%e0%b5%8b%e0%b4%a4%e0%b5%8d%e0%b4%a4%e0%b4%b0%e0%b4%82\/","title":{"raw":"\u0d35\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d15\u0d30\u0d23\u00a0\u0d1a\u0d4b\u0d26\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d4b\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d30\u0d02\u00a0","rendered":"\u0d35\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d15\u0d30\u0d23\u00a0\u0d1a\u0d4b\u0d26\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d4b\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d30\u0d02\u00a0"},"content":{"raw":"CATECHISM\u00a0OF\u00a0MALAYALAM GRAMMAR\u00a0BY\u00a0H. GUNDERT, D. Ph.\n\nREVISED, RE-ARRANGED, ENLARGED, AND TRANSLATED\u00a0BY\u00a0L. GARTHWAITE\n\n\u0d2e\u0d32\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d33 \u0d35\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d15\u0d30\u0d23\u00a0\u0d1a\u0d4b\u0d26\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d4b\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d30\u0d02\n\nPUBLISHED BY ORDER OF THE\u00a0DIRECTOR OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION\n\nCANNANORE\u00a0GOVERNMENT BOOK-DEPOT\n\n1867\n\nA\u00a0CATECHISM\u00a0OF\u00a0MALAYALAM GRAMMAR\u00a0BY\u00a0H. GUNDERT, D. Ph.\n\nREVISED, RE-ARRANGED, ENLARGED AND TRANSLATED\u00a0BY\u00a0L. GARTHWAITE\n\n\u0d35\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d15\u0d30\u0d23\u00a0\u0d1a\u0d4b\u0d26\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d4b\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d30\u0d02\n\nPUBLISHED BY ORDER OF THE\u00a0DIRECTOR OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION\n\nMANGALORE\n\nPRINTED BY PLEBST & STOLZ, BASEL MISSION PRESS\n\n1867\n\nLIST OF ERRATA (ENGLISH.)\n
    \n \t
  1. B. It is particularly requested that the\u00a0following errors may be corrected before the\u00a0book is used.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\nThis especially necessary in schools.\n\n(Some merely typographical errors of an unimportant nature\u00a0are not noticed here.)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
    Answer<\/td>\nLine<\/td>\nInstead of<\/td>\nRead<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    86<\/td>\n3<\/td>\nni<\/td>\nn\u00ed.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    109<\/td>\n13, 14, 15<\/td>\nku\u1e6dikkav\u00f3r, ku\u1e6dikkava,\u00a0ku\u1e6dikkav\u00edr, ku\u1e6dikka-vam<\/td>\nku\u1e6dikkuv\u00f3r, ku\u1e6dikku-va, ku\u1e6dikkuv\u00edr, ku\u1e6dikkauvam.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    117<\/td>\n1<\/td>\nAfter crude-forms end-ing in r,\u00a0ru,\u00a0zhu<\/td>\nAfter crude-forms of\u00a0strong verbs ending in\u00a0r,\u00a0ru,\u00a0zhu.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    120<\/td>\n(question)<\/td>\nIs 'tu' affixed to form\u00a0&c. nasals<\/td>\nHas 'tu' ever a nasal\u00a0prefixed.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    121<\/td>\n2<\/td>\nEnding in 'a'<\/td>\nEnding in labial 'a'.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    123<\/td>\n(question)<\/td>\nra, la, r\u0325a,\u00a0zha, \u1e37a<\/td>\nr, l, r\u0325,\u00a0zh, \u1e37.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    123<\/td>\n8<\/td>\nt\u00edn<\/td>\ntin.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    123<\/td>\n12<\/td>\npuka\u1e47\u1e47u (puka\u1e37nnu)\u00a0(=spat)<\/td>\npuka\u1e47\u1e47u (puka\u1e37nnu)\u00a0(=praised).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    125<\/td>\n(heading)<\/td>\n<\/td>\n[Omit \"Weak Verb\"].<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    \"<\/td>\n\"<\/td>\n<\/td>\n[Omit \"Strong Verb\"].<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    135<\/td>\n6<\/td>\npulling<\/td>\nputting.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nII ERRATA.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
    Answer<\/td>\nLine<\/td>\nInstead of<\/td>\nRead<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    140<\/td>\n5<\/td>\n'varunnu'<\/td>\n'varunna'.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    140<\/td>\n8<\/td>\n'varunnu'<\/td>\n'varunna'.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    147<\/td>\n1<\/td>\n(=\u00e1kil)<\/td>\n(=\u00e1kil, if I etc. be).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    149<\/td>\n7<\/td>\n\u00e1kilum (=if I etc. be)<\/td>\n\u00e1kilum (=although I\u00a0etc. be).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    157<\/td>\npage 114\u00a0(plu. num.)<\/td>\n3rd person Mas.<\/td>\n3rd person Mas. & Fem.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    157<\/td>\n,, 116<\/td>\ncheyy\u00e1yvu<\/td>\ncheyy\u00e1<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    157<\/td>\n,, 116<\/td>\n3rd person Mas.<\/td>\n3rd person Mas. & Fem.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    163<\/td>\nline 5<\/td>\nVerbal personal noun<\/td>\nParticipal noun.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    189<\/td>\n,, 10<\/td>\n<\/td>\n[Omit \"ular (=dry)\"].<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    204<\/td>\n,, 11<\/td>\nfeed<\/td>\nfood.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    226<\/td>\n,, 7<\/td>\n(done or suffered) or<\/td>\ndone or suffered by, or.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    229<\/td>\n,, 4<\/td>\nkollappe\u1e6d\u1e6d\u016d<\/td>\nkollappe\u1e6d\u1e6du.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    233<\/td>\n,, 5 - 6<\/td>\n<\/td>\n[Omit \"ka\u1e37ichchum\u00a0pu\u1e37achchum irunnu\u00a0(=they played and\u00a0amused themselves)\"].<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    239<\/td>\n,, 36<\/td>\nhere<\/td>\nhither.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    243<\/td>\n,, 15<\/td>\navannu<\/td>\navann\u00e1y.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    266<\/td>\n,, 14<\/td>\nher<\/td>\nhis.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    280<\/td>\n,, 7<\/td>\nconditional<\/td>\nsubjunctive.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Parsing.<\/td>\npage 138<\/td>\nka\u1e47\u1e6du (=having seen)<\/td>\nka\u1e47\u1e6da (=when they\u00a0saw).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Do.<\/td>\n,, 288<\/td>\nagrajan (=elder bro-ther)<\/td>\nagrajan (=the elderbrother).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Do.<\/td>\n,, 288<\/td>\nverb 'chonn\u00e1n'<\/td>\nverb-predicate 'chon-n\u00e1n.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Do.<\/td>\n,, 296<\/td>\ninfinitive of<\/td>\ninfinitive verb-predi-<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Analysis.<\/td>\n,, 316<\/td>\n(choll) m<\/td>\n(choll)\u00e1m.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\u0d36\u0d41\u0d26\u0d4d\u0d27\u0d2a\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d02.\n\n\u0d0e\u0d34\u0d41\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d41\u0d2a\u0d33\u0d4d\u0d33\u0d3f\u0d15\u0d33\u0d3f\u0d7d \u0d5f \u0d2a\u0d41\u0d38\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d15\u0d02 \u0d35\u0d3e\u0d2f\u0d3f\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d41\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d24\u0d3f\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d2e\u0d41\u0d2e\u0d4d\u0d2a\u0d46 \u0d24\u0d3e\u0d34\u0d46 \u0d15\u0d3e\u0d23\u0d3f\u0d1a\u0d4d\u0d1a \u0d05\u0d2c\u0d26\u0d4d\u0d27\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u0d33\u0d46 \u0d24\u0d46\u0d31\u0d31\u00a0\u0d24\u0d40\u0d4e\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d47\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d24 \u0d05\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d35\u0d36\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d02.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
    \u0d09\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d30\u0d02<\/td>\n\u0d2e\u0d47\u0d7d\u00a0\u0d35\u0d30\u0d3f<\/td>\n\u0d05\u0d36\u0d41\u0d26\u0d4d\u0d27\u0d02<\/td>\n\u0d36\u0d41\u0d26\u0d4d\u0d27\u0d02<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    83<\/td>\n13<\/td>\n\u0d05\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u0d7d<\/td>\n\u0d05\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u0d7e<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    121<\/td>\n1<\/td>\n\u0d35\u0d3f\u0d36\u0d47\u0d37\u0d3e\u0d7d '\u0d05'<\/td>\n\u0d35\u0d3f\u0d36\u0d47\u0d37\u0d3e\u0d7d \u0d13\u0d37\u0d4d\u0d20\u0d4d\u0d2f '\u0d05'<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    125<\/td>\n1<\/td>\n\u0d05\u0d2c\u0d32\u0d02<\/td>\n[\u0d0e\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d3f\u0d35\u0d2f\u0d46\u0d35 \u0d35\u0d3f\u0d1f\u0d46\u00a0\u0d23\u0d02]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    125<\/td>\n6<\/td>\n\u0d2c\u0d32\u0d02<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    158<\/td>\n2<\/td>\n\u0d24\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d46. \u0d0a\u0d28\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d3f\u0d2f\u0d15\u0d7e<\/td>\n\u0d24\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d46 \u0d0a\u0d28\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d3f\u0d2f\u0d15\u0d7e<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    189<\/td>\n5<\/td>\n\u0d09\u0d32\u0d7c<\/td>\n[\u0d0e\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d24\u0d3f\u0d28\u0d46\u0d35\u0d3f\u0d1f\u0d46\u0d23\u0d02]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    222<\/td>\n3<\/td>\n\u0d28\u0d3e\u0d32\u0d41<\/td>\n\u0d2e\u0d42\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d41<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    233<\/td>\n4<\/td>\n\u0d15\u0d33\u0d3f\u0d1a\u0d4d\u0d1a\u0d41\u0d02 \u0d2a\u0d41\u0d33\u0d1a\u0d4d\u0d1a\u0d41\u0d02 \u0d07\u0d30\u0d41\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d41<\/td>\n[\u0d0e\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d24\u0d3f\u0d28\u0d46\u0d35\u0d3f\u0d1f\u0d46\u0d23\u0d02]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    244<\/td>\n8<\/td>\n\u0d06<\/td>\n\u0d05\u0d24\u0d41\u0d15\u0d4a\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d41<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    244<\/td>\n9 \u2014 10<\/td>\n\u0d05\u0d24\u0d41\u0d15\u0d4a\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d41<\/td>\n[\u0d0e\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d24\u0d3f\u0d28\u0d46 \u0d35\u0d3f\u0d1f\u0d46\u0d23\u0d02]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    256<\/td>\n8<\/td>\n'\u0d2a\u0d15\u0d7d' \u0d15\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d41\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d35\u0d28\u0d46;\u00a0'\u0d30\u0d3e\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d3f' \u0d15\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d3e\u0d7d<\/td>\n'\u0d2a\u0d15\u0d7d' \u0d15\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d41\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d35\u0d28\u0d46'\u0d30\u0d3e\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d3f' \u0d15\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d3e\u0d7d<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    269<\/td>\n\u2014<\/td>\n\u0d2a\u0d15\u0d30\u0d2e\u0d3e\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d7b \u0d38\u0d39\u0d3e\u0d2f\u0d2e\u0d3e\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d7b<\/td>\n\u0d2a\u0d15\u0d30\u0d2e\u0d3e\u0d2f\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d3e\u0d7b \u0d38\u0d39\u0d3e\u0d2f\u0d2e\u0d3e\u0d2f\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d3e\u0d7b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    306<\/td>\n7<\/td>\n\u0d05\u0d28\u0d41\u0d35\u0d3e\u0d26\u0d15\u0d3e\u0d4e\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d25\u0d15\u00a0'\u0d07','\u0d09\u0d02'<\/td>\n\u0d05\u0d28\u0d41\u0d35\u0d3e\u0d26\u0d15\u0d3e\u0d4e\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d25\u0d15 \u0d08\u00a0'\u0d09\u0d02'<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nIV \u0d36\u0d41\u0d26\u0d4d\u0d27\u0d2a\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d02.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
    \u0d09\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d30\u0d02<\/td>\n\u0d2e\u0d47\u0d7d\u00a0\u0d35\u0d30\u0d3f<\/td>\n\u0d05\u0d36\u0d41\u0d26\u0d4d\u0d27\u0d02<\/td>\n\u0d36\u0d41\u0d26\u0d4d\u0d27\u0d02<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    <\/td>\n\u0d2d\u0d3e\u0d17\u0d02<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    <\/td>\n115\u0d3e\u0d02\u00a0\u0d2d\u0d3e\u0d17\u0d02\u00a0(\u0d2c: \u0d35:)<\/td>\n\u0d2a\u0d41: \u0d2a\u0d4d\u0d30:<\/td>\n\u0d2a\u0d41: \u0d38\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d40: \u0d2a\u0d4d\u0d30:<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    <\/td>\n117\u0d3e\u0d02 \u0d2d\u0d3e:<\/td>\n\u0d1a\u0d46\u0d2f\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d2f\u0d4d\u0d35\u0d41<\/td>\n\u0d1a\u0d46\u0d2f\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d3e<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    <\/td>\n117\u0d3e\u0d02 \u0d1f\u0d3f<\/td>\n\u0d2a\u0d41: \u0d2a\u0d4d\u0d30:<\/td>\n\u0d2a\u0d41: \u0d38\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d40: \u0d2a\u0d4d\u0d30:<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    <\/td>\n135\u0d3e\u0d02 \u0d1f\u0d3f<\/td>\n\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d3f\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d2a\u0d30\u0d3f\u0d1b\u0d4d\u0d36\u0d47\u0d26\u0d28\u0d30\u0d40\u0d24\u0d3f<\/td>\n\u0d2a\u0d26\u0d2a\u0d30\u0d3f\u0d1b\u0d4d\u0d36\u0d47\u0d26\u0d28\u0d30\u0d40\u0d24\u0d3f<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    \u0d35\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d15\u0d30\u0d3f\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d7d<\/td>\n139\u0d3e\u0d02 \u0d1f\u0d3f<\/td>\n\u0d15\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d41<\/td>\n\u0d15'\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f'<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    \u0d1f\u0d3f<\/td>\n293\u0d3e\u0d02 \u0d1f\u0d3f<\/td>\n\u0d0e\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d41\u0d33\u0d4d\u0d33\u0d24\u0d41\u0d24\u0d3f\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d41 \u0d07\u0d15\u0d4e\u0d2e\u0d4d\u0d2e\u0d2e\u0d3e\u0d15\u0d41\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d41<\/td>\n\u0d0e\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d41\u0d33\u0d4d\u0d33\u0d24\u0d41 \u0d07\u0d24\u0d3f\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d41 \u0d15\u0d4e\u0d2e\u0d4d\u0d2e\u0d2e\u0d3e\u0d15\u0d41\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d41<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    \u0d1f\u0d3f<\/td>\n295\u0d3e\u0d02 \u0d1f\u0d3f<\/td>\n\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d3f\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d28\u0d3e\u0d2e\u0d02 \u0d0f: \u0d35:<\/td>\n\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d3f\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d28\u0d3e\u0d2e\u0d02 \u0d28\u0d2a\u0d41:\u0d0f:\u0d35:<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n
      \n \t
    1. Complaints have been numerous from both teachers\u00a0and pupils that the former editions of this grammar were\u00a0exceedingly difficult to understand. It has therefore been\u00a0carefully and fully revised, a large part of it re-written,\u00a0the whole of it re-arranged, and considerable additions\u00a0have been made, so that it is now almost a new work.\u00a0Besides this, an explanatory translation has been given.\u00a0It is hoped that the work as it now stands will be found\u00a0adapted to use in schools, and that most of the obscurities\u00a0before complained of will have disappeared. One of the\u00a0most perplexing of these was the difficulty of determining\u00a0what were indeclinables (\u0d05\u0d35\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d2f\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u0d7e) and what were not,\u00a0on which subject the editor has endeavoured by a rigorous\u00a0application of the definition to make the doctrine clear.\u00a0And it may here be stated that the doctrine, on this point,\u00a0of this smaller grammar is that of Dr. Gundert's large\u00a0Grammar, but distinctly stated and strictly carried out.\u00a0Of course for the work as it now stands, the reviser alone\u00a0must be considered responsible.<\/li>\n \t
    2. Those accustomed to the grammars of European\u00a0tongues only, must remember that Malay\u00e1lam, belonging\u00a0to quite another family of languages, must necessarily pre-sent many contrasts to the grammatical systems with which\u00a0they have hitherto been familiar. The very fact that\u00a0there are only three parts of speech in the language\u00a0instead of nine, is one of those contrasts, and the cause1*<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n \n\nof many others still more startling. For the usages by\u00a0which the language is enabled to dispense with adject-ives and adverbs, the reader may consult among other\u00a0places the questions on adnounal participles and ques-tions 221 and 238 seqq. and for those by which the\u00a0want of prepositions and conjunctions is supplied ques-tions 268 and 310 seqq. So in analysing sentences it\u00a0will be found that the use of nouns and verbs to supply\u00a0the place of other parts of speech often makes the number\u00a0of sentences in a Malay\u00e1lam period greater than it would\u00a0be in an English period expressing the same ideas, since\u00a0every verb which has a separate subject, makes a separate\u00a0sentence, either principal or subordinate. This is the only\u00a0rule that can be relied on in the analysis of Malay\u00e1lam\u00a0sentences. Nor can it be confined as in English, to finite\u00a0verbs, for the genius of the language tends to long periods\u00a0in which one solitary finite verb comes at the end only.\n
        \n \t
      1. The examples in the original work from their\u00a0brevity and the ambiguity caused by want of their con-text were often very difficult to translate, and some ren-derings will no doubt be found capable of amendment.<\/li>\n \t
      2. Many errors escaped notice till it was too late\u00a0to correct them. These are noticed in the errata, and it\u00a0is requested that the corrections indicated may be made\u00a0before the work is used.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\nA\u00a0CATECHISMISM OF\u00a0Malayalam Grammar\n
          \n \t
        1. Of how many kinds are the Malay\u00e1lam letters?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\nTwo, Vowels and Consonants.\n\na, \u00e1, i, \u00ed, u, \u00fa,\u00a0ru,\u00a0lu, e, \u00e9, ei, o, \u00f3, au, am, ah.\n\nThe following seven are short vowels: a, i, u,\u00a0ru,\u00a0lu,\u00a0e, o.\n
            \n \t
          1. How many of these are long?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\nThe following seven are long: \u00e1, \u00ed, \u00fa, \u00e9, ei, \u00f3, au.\n\nThe two long vowels\u00a0r\u00fa,\u00a0l\u00fa\u00a0occur only in Sanskrit.\n\n\u0d2e\u0d32\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d33 \u0d35\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d15\u0d30\u0d23\u00a0\u0d1a\u0d4b\u0d26\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d4b\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d30\u0d02","rendered":"

            CATECHISM\u00a0OF\u00a0MALAYALAM GRAMMAR\u00a0BY\u00a0H. GUNDERT, D. Ph.<\/p>\n

            REVISED, RE-ARRANGED, ENLARGED, AND TRANSLATED\u00a0BY\u00a0L. GARTHWAITE<\/p>\n

            \u0d2e\u0d32\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d33 \u0d35\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d15\u0d30\u0d23\u00a0\u0d1a\u0d4b\u0d26\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d4b\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d30\u0d02<\/p>\n

            PUBLISHED BY ORDER OF THE\u00a0DIRECTOR OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION<\/p>\n

            CANNANORE\u00a0GOVERNMENT BOOK-DEPOT<\/p>\n

            1867<\/p>\n

            A\u00a0CATECHISM\u00a0OF\u00a0MALAYALAM GRAMMAR\u00a0BY\u00a0H. GUNDERT, D. Ph.<\/p>\n

            REVISED, RE-ARRANGED, ENLARGED AND TRANSLATED\u00a0BY\u00a0L. GARTHWAITE<\/p>\n

            \u0d35\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d15\u0d30\u0d23\u00a0\u0d1a\u0d4b\u0d26\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d4b\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d30\u0d02<\/p>\n

            PUBLISHED BY ORDER OF THE\u00a0DIRECTOR OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION<\/p>\n

            MANGALORE<\/p>\n

            PRINTED BY PLEBST & STOLZ, BASEL MISSION PRESS<\/p>\n

            1867<\/p>\n

            LIST OF ERRATA (ENGLISH.)<\/p>\n

              \n
            1. B. It is particularly requested that the\u00a0following errors may be corrected before the\u00a0book is used.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

              This especially necessary in schools.<\/p>\n

              (Some merely typographical errors of an unimportant nature\u00a0are not noticed here.)<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
              Answer<\/td>\nLine<\/td>\nInstead of<\/td>\nRead<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              86<\/td>\n3<\/td>\nni<\/td>\nn\u00ed.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              109<\/td>\n13, 14, 15<\/td>\nku\u1e6dikkav\u00f3r, ku\u1e6dikkava,\u00a0ku\u1e6dikkav\u00edr, ku\u1e6dikka-vam<\/td>\nku\u1e6dikkuv\u00f3r, ku\u1e6dikku-va, ku\u1e6dikkuv\u00edr, ku\u1e6dikkauvam.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              117<\/td>\n1<\/td>\nAfter crude-forms end-ing in r,\u00a0ru,\u00a0zhu<\/td>\nAfter crude-forms of\u00a0strong verbs ending in\u00a0r,\u00a0ru,\u00a0zhu.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              120<\/td>\n(question)<\/td>\nIs ‘tu’ affixed to form\u00a0&c. nasals<\/td>\nHas ‘tu’ ever a nasal\u00a0prefixed.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              121<\/td>\n2<\/td>\nEnding in ‘a’<\/td>\nEnding in labial ‘a’.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              123<\/td>\n(question)<\/td>\nra, la, r\u0325a,\u00a0zha, \u1e37a<\/td>\nr, l, r\u0325,\u00a0zh, \u1e37.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              123<\/td>\n8<\/td>\nt\u00edn<\/td>\ntin.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              123<\/td>\n12<\/td>\npuka\u1e47\u1e47u (puka\u1e37nnu)\u00a0(=spat)<\/td>\npuka\u1e47\u1e47u (puka\u1e37nnu)\u00a0(=praised).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              125<\/td>\n(heading)<\/td>\n<\/td>\n[Omit “Weak Verb”].<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              “<\/td>\n“<\/td>\n<\/td>\n[Omit “Strong Verb”].<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              135<\/td>\n6<\/td>\npulling<\/td>\nputting.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

              II ERRATA.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
              Answer<\/td>\nLine<\/td>\nInstead of<\/td>\nRead<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              140<\/td>\n5<\/td>\n‘varunnu’<\/td>\n‘varunna’.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              140<\/td>\n8<\/td>\n‘varunnu’<\/td>\n‘varunna’.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              147<\/td>\n1<\/td>\n(=\u00e1kil)<\/td>\n(=\u00e1kil, if I etc. be).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              149<\/td>\n7<\/td>\n\u00e1kilum (=if I etc. be)<\/td>\n\u00e1kilum (=although I\u00a0etc. be).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              157<\/td>\npage 114\u00a0(plu. num.)<\/td>\n3rd person Mas.<\/td>\n3rd person Mas. & Fem.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              157<\/td>\n,, 116<\/td>\ncheyy\u00e1yvu<\/td>\ncheyy\u00e1<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              157<\/td>\n,, 116<\/td>\n3rd person Mas.<\/td>\n3rd person Mas. & Fem.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              163<\/td>\nline 5<\/td>\nVerbal personal noun<\/td>\nParticipal noun.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              189<\/td>\n,, 10<\/td>\n<\/td>\n[Omit “ular (=dry)”].<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              204<\/td>\n,, 11<\/td>\nfeed<\/td>\nfood.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              226<\/td>\n,, 7<\/td>\n(done or suffered) or<\/td>\ndone or suffered by, or.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              229<\/td>\n,, 4<\/td>\nkollappe\u1e6d\u1e6d\u016d<\/td>\nkollappe\u1e6d\u1e6du.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              233<\/td>\n,, 5 – 6<\/td>\n<\/td>\n[Omit “ka\u1e37ichchum\u00a0pu\u1e37achchum irunnu\u00a0(=they played and\u00a0amused themselves)”].<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              239<\/td>\n,, 36<\/td>\nhere<\/td>\nhither.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              243<\/td>\n,, 15<\/td>\navannu<\/td>\navann\u00e1y.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              266<\/td>\n,, 14<\/td>\nher<\/td>\nhis.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              280<\/td>\n,, 7<\/td>\nconditional<\/td>\nsubjunctive.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              Parsing.<\/td>\npage 138<\/td>\nka\u1e47\u1e6du (=having seen)<\/td>\nka\u1e47\u1e6da (=when they\u00a0saw).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              Do.<\/td>\n,, 288<\/td>\nagrajan (=elder bro-ther)<\/td>\nagrajan (=the elderbrother).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              Do.<\/td>\n,, 288<\/td>\nverb ‘chonn\u00e1n’<\/td>\nverb-predicate ‘chon-n\u00e1n.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              Do.<\/td>\n,, 296<\/td>\ninfinitive of<\/td>\ninfinitive verb-predi-<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              Analysis.<\/td>\n,, 316<\/td>\n(choll) m<\/td>\n(choll)\u00e1m.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

              \u0d36\u0d41\u0d26\u0d4d\u0d27\u0d2a\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d02.<\/p>\n

              \u0d0e\u0d34\u0d41\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d41\u0d2a\u0d33\u0d4d\u0d33\u0d3f\u0d15\u0d33\u0d3f\u0d7d \u0d5f \u0d2a\u0d41\u0d38\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d15\u0d02 \u0d35\u0d3e\u0d2f\u0d3f\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d41\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d24\u0d3f\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d2e\u0d41\u0d2e\u0d4d\u0d2a\u0d46 \u0d24\u0d3e\u0d34\u0d46 \u0d15\u0d3e\u0d23\u0d3f\u0d1a\u0d4d\u0d1a \u0d05\u0d2c\u0d26\u0d4d\u0d27\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u0d33\u0d46 \u0d24\u0d46\u0d31\u0d31\u00a0\u0d24\u0d40\u0d4e\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d47\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d24 \u0d05\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d35\u0d36\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d02.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
              \u0d09\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d30\u0d02<\/td>\n\u0d2e\u0d47\u0d7d\u00a0\u0d35\u0d30\u0d3f<\/td>\n\u0d05\u0d36\u0d41\u0d26\u0d4d\u0d27\u0d02<\/td>\n\u0d36\u0d41\u0d26\u0d4d\u0d27\u0d02<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              83<\/td>\n13<\/td>\n\u0d05\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u0d7d<\/td>\n\u0d05\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u0d7e<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              121<\/td>\n1<\/td>\n\u0d35\u0d3f\u0d36\u0d47\u0d37\u0d3e\u0d7d ‘\u0d05’<\/td>\n\u0d35\u0d3f\u0d36\u0d47\u0d37\u0d3e\u0d7d \u0d13\u0d37\u0d4d\u0d20\u0d4d\u0d2f ‘\u0d05’<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              125<\/td>\n1<\/td>\n\u0d05\u0d2c\u0d32\u0d02<\/td>\n[\u0d0e\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d3f\u0d35\u0d2f\u0d46\u0d35 \u0d35\u0d3f\u0d1f\u0d46\u00a0\u0d23\u0d02]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              125<\/td>\n6<\/td>\n\u0d2c\u0d32\u0d02<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              158<\/td>\n2<\/td>\n\u0d24\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d46. \u0d0a\u0d28\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d3f\u0d2f\u0d15\u0d7e<\/td>\n\u0d24\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d46 \u0d0a\u0d28\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d3f\u0d2f\u0d15\u0d7e<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              189<\/td>\n5<\/td>\n\u0d09\u0d32\u0d7c<\/td>\n[\u0d0e\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d24\u0d3f\u0d28\u0d46\u0d35\u0d3f\u0d1f\u0d46\u0d23\u0d02]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              222<\/td>\n3<\/td>\n\u0d28\u0d3e\u0d32\u0d41<\/td>\n\u0d2e\u0d42\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d41<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              233<\/td>\n4<\/td>\n\u0d15\u0d33\u0d3f\u0d1a\u0d4d\u0d1a\u0d41\u0d02 \u0d2a\u0d41\u0d33\u0d1a\u0d4d\u0d1a\u0d41\u0d02 \u0d07\u0d30\u0d41\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d41<\/td>\n[\u0d0e\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d24\u0d3f\u0d28\u0d46\u0d35\u0d3f\u0d1f\u0d46\u0d23\u0d02]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              244<\/td>\n8<\/td>\n\u0d06<\/td>\n\u0d05\u0d24\u0d41\u0d15\u0d4a\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d41<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              244<\/td>\n9 \u2014 10<\/td>\n\u0d05\u0d24\u0d41\u0d15\u0d4a\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d41<\/td>\n[\u0d0e\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d24\u0d3f\u0d28\u0d46 \u0d35\u0d3f\u0d1f\u0d46\u0d23\u0d02]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              256<\/td>\n8<\/td>\n‘\u0d2a\u0d15\u0d7d’ \u0d15\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d41\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d35\u0d28\u0d46;\u00a0‘\u0d30\u0d3e\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d3f’ \u0d15\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d3e\u0d7d<\/td>\n‘\u0d2a\u0d15\u0d7d’ \u0d15\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d41\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d35\u0d28\u0d46’\u0d30\u0d3e\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d3f’ \u0d15\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d3e\u0d7d<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              269<\/td>\n\u2014<\/td>\n\u0d2a\u0d15\u0d30\u0d2e\u0d3e\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d7b \u0d38\u0d39\u0d3e\u0d2f\u0d2e\u0d3e\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d7b<\/td>\n\u0d2a\u0d15\u0d30\u0d2e\u0d3e\u0d2f\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d3e\u0d7b \u0d38\u0d39\u0d3e\u0d2f\u0d2e\u0d3e\u0d2f\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d3e\u0d7b<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              306<\/td>\n7<\/td>\n\u0d05\u0d28\u0d41\u0d35\u0d3e\u0d26\u0d15\u0d3e\u0d4e\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d25\u0d15\u00a0‘\u0d07’,’\u0d09\u0d02’<\/td>\n\u0d05\u0d28\u0d41\u0d35\u0d3e\u0d26\u0d15\u0d3e\u0d4e\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d25\u0d15 \u0d08\u00a0‘\u0d09\u0d02’<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

              IV \u0d36\u0d41\u0d26\u0d4d\u0d27\u0d2a\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d02.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
              \u0d09\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d30\u0d02<\/td>\n\u0d2e\u0d47\u0d7d\u00a0\u0d35\u0d30\u0d3f<\/td>\n\u0d05\u0d36\u0d41\u0d26\u0d4d\u0d27\u0d02<\/td>\n\u0d36\u0d41\u0d26\u0d4d\u0d27\u0d02<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              <\/td>\n\u0d2d\u0d3e\u0d17\u0d02<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              <\/td>\n115\u0d3e\u0d02\u00a0\u0d2d\u0d3e\u0d17\u0d02\u00a0(\u0d2c: \u0d35:)<\/td>\n\u0d2a\u0d41: \u0d2a\u0d4d\u0d30:<\/td>\n\u0d2a\u0d41: \u0d38\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d40: \u0d2a\u0d4d\u0d30:<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              <\/td>\n117\u0d3e\u0d02 \u0d2d\u0d3e:<\/td>\n\u0d1a\u0d46\u0d2f\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d2f\u0d4d\u0d35\u0d41<\/td>\n\u0d1a\u0d46\u0d2f\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d3e<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              <\/td>\n117\u0d3e\u0d02 \u0d1f\u0d3f<\/td>\n\u0d2a\u0d41: \u0d2a\u0d4d\u0d30:<\/td>\n\u0d2a\u0d41: \u0d38\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d40: \u0d2a\u0d4d\u0d30:<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              <\/td>\n135\u0d3e\u0d02 \u0d1f\u0d3f<\/td>\n\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d3f\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d2a\u0d30\u0d3f\u0d1b\u0d4d\u0d36\u0d47\u0d26\u0d28\u0d30\u0d40\u0d24\u0d3f<\/td>\n\u0d2a\u0d26\u0d2a\u0d30\u0d3f\u0d1b\u0d4d\u0d36\u0d47\u0d26\u0d28\u0d30\u0d40\u0d24\u0d3f<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              \u0d35\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d15\u0d30\u0d3f\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d7d<\/td>\n139\u0d3e\u0d02 \u0d1f\u0d3f<\/td>\n\u0d15\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f\u0d41<\/td>\n\u0d15’\u0d23\u0d4d\u0d1f’<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              \u0d1f\u0d3f<\/td>\n293\u0d3e\u0d02 \u0d1f\u0d3f<\/td>\n\u0d0e\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d41\u0d33\u0d4d\u0d33\u0d24\u0d41\u0d24\u0d3f\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d41 \u0d07\u0d15\u0d4e\u0d2e\u0d4d\u0d2e\u0d2e\u0d3e\u0d15\u0d41\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d41<\/td>\n\u0d0e\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d41\u0d33\u0d4d\u0d33\u0d24\u0d41 \u0d07\u0d24\u0d3f\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d41 \u0d15\u0d4e\u0d2e\u0d4d\u0d2e\u0d2e\u0d3e\u0d15\u0d41\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d28\u0d41<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              \u0d1f\u0d3f<\/td>\n295\u0d3e\u0d02 \u0d1f\u0d3f<\/td>\n\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d3f\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d28\u0d3e\u0d2e\u0d02 \u0d0f: \u0d35:<\/td>\n\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d30\u0d3f\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d28\u0d3e\u0d2e\u0d02 \u0d28\u0d2a\u0d41:\u0d0f:\u0d35:<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n
                \n
              1. Complaints have been numerous from both teachers\u00a0and pupils that the former editions of this grammar were\u00a0exceedingly difficult to understand. It has therefore been\u00a0carefully and fully revised, a large part of it re-written,\u00a0the whole of it re-arranged, and considerable additions\u00a0have been made, so that it is now almost a new work.\u00a0Besides this, an explanatory translation has been given.\u00a0It is hoped that the work as it now stands will be found\u00a0adapted to use in schools, and that most of the obscurities\u00a0before complained of will have disappeared. One of the\u00a0most perplexing of these was the difficulty of determining\u00a0what were indeclinables (\u0d05\u0d35\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d2f\u0d19\u0d4d\u0d19\u0d7e) and what were not,\u00a0on which subject the editor has endeavoured by a rigorous\u00a0application of the definition to make the doctrine clear.\u00a0And it may here be stated that the doctrine, on this point,\u00a0of this smaller grammar is that of Dr. Gundert’s large\u00a0Grammar, but distinctly stated and strictly carried out.\u00a0Of course for the work as it now stands, the reviser alone\u00a0must be considered responsible.<\/li>\n
              2. Those accustomed to the grammars of European\u00a0tongues only, must remember that Malay\u00e1lam, belonging\u00a0to quite another family of languages, must necessarily pre-sent many contrasts to the grammatical systems with which\u00a0they have hitherto been familiar. The very fact that\u00a0there are only three parts of speech in the language\u00a0instead of nine, is one of those contrasts, and the cause1*<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                 <\/p>\n

                of many others still more startling. For the usages by\u00a0which the language is enabled to dispense with adject-ives and adverbs, the reader may consult among other\u00a0places the questions on adnounal participles and ques-tions 221 and 238 seqq. and for those by which the\u00a0want of prepositions and conjunctions is supplied ques-tions 268 and 310 seqq. So in analysing sentences it\u00a0will be found that the use of nouns and verbs to supply\u00a0the place of other parts of speech often makes the number\u00a0of sentences in a Malay\u00e1lam period greater than it would\u00a0be in an English period expressing the same ideas, since\u00a0every verb which has a separate subject, makes a separate\u00a0sentence, either principal or subordinate. This is the only\u00a0rule that can be relied on in the analysis of Malay\u00e1lam\u00a0sentences. Nor can it be confined as in English, to finite\u00a0verbs, for the genius of the language tends to long periods\u00a0in which one solitary finite verb comes at the end only.<\/p>\n

                  \n
                1. The examples in the original work from their\u00a0brevity and the ambiguity caused by want of their con-text were often very difficult to translate, and some ren-derings will no doubt be found capable of amendment.<\/li>\n
                2. Many errors escaped notice till it was too late\u00a0to correct them. These are noticed in the errata, and it\u00a0is requested that the corrections indicated may be made\u00a0before the work is used.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                  A\u00a0CATECHISMISM OF\u00a0Malayalam Grammar<\/p>\n

                    \n
                  1. Of how many kinds are the Malay\u00e1lam letters?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                    Two, Vowels and Consonants.<\/p>\n

                    a, \u00e1, i, \u00ed, u, \u00fa,\u00a0ru,\u00a0lu, e, \u00e9, ei, o, \u00f3, au, am, ah.<\/p>\n

                    The following seven are short vowels: a, i, u,\u00a0ru,\u00a0lu,\u00a0e, o.<\/p>\n

                      \n
                    1. How many of these are long?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

                      The following seven are long: \u00e1, \u00ed, \u00fa, \u00e9, ei, \u00f3, au.<\/p>\n

                      The two long vowels\u00a0r\u00fa,\u00a0l\u00fa\u00a0occur only in Sanskrit.<\/p>\n

                      \u0d2e\u0d32\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d33 \u0d35\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d15\u0d30\u0d23\u00a0\u0d1a\u0d4b\u0d26\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d4b\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d24\u0d30\u0d02<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"menu_order":5,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"front-matter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-20","front-matter","type-front-matter","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundertml\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/front-matter\/20","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundertml\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/front-matter"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundertml\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/front-matter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundertml\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundertml\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/front-matter\/20\/revisions"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundertml\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/front-matter\/20\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundertml\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=20"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"front-matter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundertml\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/front-matter-type?post=20"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundertml\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=20"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundertml\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=20"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}