{"id":22,"date":"2026-05-05T08:16:34","date_gmt":"2026-05-05T07:16:34","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundert\/chapter\/orthography-and-the-lepsius-transliteration-system\/"},"modified":"2026-05-15T14:13:35","modified_gmt":"2026-05-15T13:13:35","slug":"orthography-and-the-lepsius-transliteration-system","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundert\/chapter\/orthography-and-the-lepsius-transliteration-system\/","title":{"raw":"Orthography and the Lepsius Transliteration System","rendered":"Orthography and the Lepsius Transliteration System"},"content":{"raw":"
A standardized transliteration system was a strategic necessity for 19th-century European scholars to facilitate the comparative study of Dravidian languages. Gundert utilized Dr. Lepsius's <\/span>Standard Alphabet<\/i>, a system that prioritizes phonetic reality over mere orthographic transliteration. This system allows for the capture of allophonic variations and specific Dravidian articulations that are often obscured by the Malayalam script itself.<\/span><\/div>\n
Vowels<\/span><\/div>\n
The following rules define the phonetic values for Malayalam vowels in the Lepsius system:<\/span><\/div>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n
Malayalam Script<\/span><\/div><\/th>\n
\n
Transliteration<\/span><\/div><\/th>\n
\n
English Phonetic Equivalent \/ Example<\/span><\/div><\/th>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\u0d05<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
a<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
as <\/span>a<\/i> in about<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\u0d06<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
\u1ea5<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
as <\/span>a<\/i> in far<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\u0d07<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
i<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
as <\/span>i<\/i> in pin<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\u0d5f<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
\u012b<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
as <\/span>i<\/i> in police<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\u0d09<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
u<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
as <\/span>u<\/i> in full<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\u0d0a<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
\u016b<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
as <\/span>u<\/i> in rule<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\u0d0e<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
e<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
as <\/span>ea<\/i> in head<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\u0d0f<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
\u0113<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
as <\/span>ea<\/i> in swear<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\u0d10<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
ei, ai<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
as <\/span>ei<\/i> in height (M.); as <\/span>ai<\/i> in kaiser (S.)<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\u0d12<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
o<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
as <\/span>o<\/i> in collect<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\u0d13<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
\u014d<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
as <\/span>o<\/i> in vote<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\u0d14<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
au<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
as <\/span>ou<\/i> in house<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\u0d0b<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
\u1e5b<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
vocalized <\/span>r<\/i><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\u0d60<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
\u1e5d<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
vocalized <\/span>r<\/i> (lengthened)<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\u0d0c<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
\u1e37i<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
vocalized <\/span>l<\/i><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\n
\u0d61<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
\u1e37\u012b<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n
\n
vocalized <\/span>l<\/i> (lengthened)<\/span><\/div><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n
Consonants<\/span><\/div>\n
Consonants are organized by their \"Varga\" (class). For aspirated forms, the student must note the distinct breathy release (aspirated explosive) compared to the surd explosive.<\/span><\/div>\n
Initial Consonants:<\/b><\/div>\n
    \n \t
  • \u0d15 \u2014 ka \u2014 as <\/span>ka<\/i> in kalendar<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d16 \u2014 kha \u2014 as in k-hot (aspirated explosive)<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d17 \u2014 ga \u2014 as <\/span>ga<\/i> in gallon<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d18 \u2014 gha \u2014 as in log-house (aspirated explosive)<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d19 \u2014 \u1e45a \u2014 as <\/span>\u00f1g<\/i> in singing<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d1a \u2014 \u010da \u2014 as <\/span>cha<\/i> in chapter<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d1b \u2014 \u010dha \u2014 as in batch-house (aspirated explosive)<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d1c \u2014 \u0135a \u2014 as <\/span>ja<\/i> in Japan<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d1d \u2014 \u0135h \u2014 as in bridge-house (aspirated explosive)<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d1e \u2014 \u1e45a \u2014 as <\/span>nya<\/i> in banyan<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d1f \u2014 \u1e6da \u2014 the cerebral <\/span>ta<\/i><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d20 \u2014 \u1e6dha \u2014 the cerebral <\/span>ta<\/i> (aspirated)<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d21 \u2014 \u1e0da \u2014 the cerebral <\/span>da<\/i><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d22 \u2014 \u1e0dha \u2014 the cerebral <\/span>da<\/i> (aspirated)<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d23 \u2014 \u1e47a \u2014 the cerebral <\/span>na<\/i><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d24 \u2014 ta \u2014 the true dental <\/span>ta<\/i><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d25 \u2014 tha \u2014 the true dental <\/span>ta<\/i> (aspirated)<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d26 \u2014 da \u2014 the true dental <\/span>da<\/i><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d27 \u2014 dha \u2014 the true dental <\/span>da<\/i> (aspirated)<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d28 \u2014 na \u2014 the true dental <\/span>na<\/i><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d2a \u2014 pa \u2014 as <\/span>pa<\/i> in parental<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d2b \u2014 pha \u2014 as in up-hill (aspirated explosive)<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d2c \u2014 ba \u2014 as <\/span>ba<\/i> in balloon<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d2d \u2014 bha \u2014 as in abhor (aspirated explosive)<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d2e \u2014 ma \u2014 as <\/span>ma<\/i> in maternal<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d2f \u2014 ya \u2014 as <\/span>ya<\/i> in yahoo (German <\/span>j<\/i>)<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d30 \u2014 ra \u2014 a palatal <\/span>r<\/i><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d31 \u2014 \u0155a \u2014 a cerebral <\/span>r<\/i> (German <\/span>r<\/i>)<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d32 \u2014 la \u2014 as <\/span>la<\/i> in laborious<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d35 \u2014 va \u2014 as <\/span>va<\/i> in variety (soft English <\/span>v<\/i>)<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d36 \u2014 \u0161a \u2014 a palatal <\/span>sh<\/i><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d37 \u2014 \u0161a \u2014 a cerebral <\/span>sh<\/i> (English <\/span>sh<\/i>)<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d38 \u2014 sa \u2014 as <\/span>sa<\/i> in salute<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d39 \u2014 ha \u2014 as <\/span>ha<\/i> in harangue<\/span><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d33 \u2014 \u1e37a \u2014 a cerebral <\/span>l<\/i><\/li>\n \t
  • \u0d34 \u2014 \u1e3ba \u2014 a cerebro\u2013palatal <\/span>l<\/i><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
    Final Consonants (Section 1.b):<\/b> <\/span>The following characters express consonants without the inherent vowel:<\/span> <\/span>\u0d7f (k), \u0d7a (\u1e47), \u0d7b (\u0144), \u0d2e\u0d4d (m), \u0d55 (y), \u0d7c (r), \u0d7d (l), \u0d7e (\u1e37), \u0d34\u0d4d (\u1e3b).<\/span><\/div>\n
    \u00a74. Peculiarities (Literal Extraction)<\/span><\/div>\n
    \"a. \u0d7d, besides expressing final l, serves also for Sanscrit \u0d24\u0d4d t, which in Malay\u0101-\u1e37am is pronounced l, f.i. in \u0d09\u0d7d, \u0d24\u0d7d, \u0d2e\u0d7d etc.; \u0d05\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d2d\u0d41\u0d24\u0d02, \u0d09\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d38\u0d3e\u0d39\u0d02, \u0d24\u0d3e\u0d7d\u0d2a\u0d7c\u0d2f\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d02, \u0d1a\u0d7d\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d3e\u0d30\u0d02, \u0d17\u0d7d\u0d17\u0d26\u0d02, etc. (These are in Sanscrit \u010damat-k\u00e4ra, gadga\u010fa, etc.).<\/span><\/div>\n
    b. \u0d28 & \u0d7b. The Malay\u0101\u1e37am has two different n, viz: the true dental \u0d28 (4th Varga) and the Dravidian (dento-gingival) \u0d7b (6th Varga, page 523). The distinct pronunciation of both is still in use, but not nowadays, (as is the case with the Tamil), the consistent writing of the characters representing it.<\/span><\/div>\n
    c. \u0d31 (6th Varga) has three different pronunciations. 1. \u0d31 doubled (\u0d31\u0d4d\u0d31) is marked \u0165\u0165a (resembling tt in utter), 2. combined with \u0d7b (\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d31) is marked \u0144\u010fa (resembling nd in binder), 3. initial and medial \u0d31 is marked \u0155.\"<\/span><\/div>\n
    The Function of the Vir\u0101ma (\u02d8)<\/b> <\/span>The <\/span>vir\u0101ma<\/i> (or chandrakkala) is a critical marker in Gundert\u2019s orthography. For the modern student, it signifies the absence of a vowel following a consonant (e.g., <\/span>k\u012b\u1e3b<\/i>, <\/span>\u0161ubh<\/i>). Significantly, Gundert utilizes it to show the \"real and accurate pronunciation of the half u as \u1ee5.\" Furthermore, it is used for the \"convenience of the reader\" to indicate an arbitrary division of words in sentences that would otherwise be written as a single, continuous string.<\/span> <\/span>Example:<\/b> <\/span>parabrahmatt\u014d\u1e0d' onni\u010d\u010d'<\/code> (instead of the continuous <\/span>parabrahmatt\u014d\u1e0donni\u010d\u010d\u2019<\/i>).<\/span><\/div>\n
    The mechanical precision of the script provides the necessary foundation for exploring the etymological origins of the Malayalam lexicon.<\/span><\/div>","rendered":"
    A standardized transliteration system was a strategic necessity for 19th-century European scholars to facilitate the comparative study of Dravidian languages. Gundert utilized Dr. Lepsius’s <\/span>Standard Alphabet<\/i>, a system that prioritizes phonetic reality over mere orthographic transliteration. This system allows for the capture of allophonic variations and specific Dravidian articulations that are often obscured by the Malayalam script itself.<\/span><\/div>\n
    Vowels<\/span><\/div>\n
    The following rules define the phonetic values for Malayalam vowels in the Lepsius system:<\/span><\/div>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
    \n
    Malayalam Script<\/span><\/div>\n<\/th>\n
    		\n
    Transliteration<\/span><\/div>\n<\/th>\n
    		\n
    English Phonetic Equivalent \/ Example<\/span><\/div>\n<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n
    \n
    \u0d05<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    a<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    as <\/span>a<\/i> in about<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    \n
    \u0d06<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    \u1ea5<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    as <\/span>a<\/i> in far<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    \n
    \u0d07<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    i<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    as <\/span>i<\/i> in pin<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    \n
    \u0d5f<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    \u012b<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    as <\/span>i<\/i> in police<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    \n
    \u0d09<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    u<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    as <\/span>u<\/i> in full<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    \n
    \u0d0a<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    \u016b<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    as <\/span>u<\/i> in rule<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    \n
    \u0d0e<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    e<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    as <\/span>ea<\/i> in head<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    \n
    \u0d0f<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    \u0113<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    as <\/span>ea<\/i> in swear<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    \n
    \u0d10<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    ei, ai<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    as <\/span>ei<\/i> in height (M.); as <\/span>ai<\/i> in kaiser (S.)<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    \n
    \u0d12<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    o<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    as <\/span>o<\/i> in collect<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    \n
    \u0d13<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    \u014d<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    as <\/span>o<\/i> in vote<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    \n
    \u0d14<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    au<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    as <\/span>ou<\/i> in house<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    \n
    \u0d0b<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    \u1e5b<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    vocalized <\/span>r<\/i><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    \n
    \u0d60<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    \u1e5d<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    vocalized <\/span>r<\/i> (lengthened)<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    \n
    \u0d0c<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    \u1e37i<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    vocalized <\/span>l<\/i><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    \n
    \u0d61<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    \u1e37\u012b<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n
    		\n
    vocalized <\/span>l<\/i> (lengthened)<\/span><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n
    Consonants<\/span><\/div>\n
    Consonants are organized by their “Varga” (class). For aspirated forms, the student must note the distinct breathy release (aspirated explosive) compared to the surd explosive.<\/span><\/div>\n
    Initial Consonants:<\/b><\/div>\n
      \n
    • \u0d15 \u2014 ka \u2014 as <\/span>ka<\/i> in kalendar<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d16 \u2014 kha \u2014 as in k-hot (aspirated explosive)<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d17 \u2014 ga \u2014 as <\/span>ga<\/i> in gallon<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d18 \u2014 gha \u2014 as in log-house (aspirated explosive)<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d19 \u2014 \u1e45a \u2014 as <\/span>\u00f1g<\/i> in singing<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d1a \u2014 \u010da \u2014 as <\/span>cha<\/i> in chapter<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d1b \u2014 \u010dha \u2014 as in batch-house (aspirated explosive)<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d1c \u2014 \u0135a \u2014 as <\/span>ja<\/i> in Japan<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d1d \u2014 \u0135h \u2014 as in bridge-house (aspirated explosive)<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d1e \u2014 \u1e45a \u2014 as <\/span>nya<\/i> in banyan<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d1f \u2014 \u1e6da \u2014 the cerebral <\/span>ta<\/i><\/li>\n
    • \u0d20 \u2014 \u1e6dha \u2014 the cerebral <\/span>ta<\/i> (aspirated)<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d21 \u2014 \u1e0da \u2014 the cerebral <\/span>da<\/i><\/li>\n
    • \u0d22 \u2014 \u1e0dha \u2014 the cerebral <\/span>da<\/i> (aspirated)<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d23 \u2014 \u1e47a \u2014 the cerebral <\/span>na<\/i><\/li>\n
    • \u0d24 \u2014 ta \u2014 the true dental <\/span>ta<\/i><\/li>\n
    • \u0d25 \u2014 tha \u2014 the true dental <\/span>ta<\/i> (aspirated)<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d26 \u2014 da \u2014 the true dental <\/span>da<\/i><\/li>\n
    • \u0d27 \u2014 dha \u2014 the true dental <\/span>da<\/i> (aspirated)<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d28 \u2014 na \u2014 the true dental <\/span>na<\/i><\/li>\n
    • \u0d2a \u2014 pa \u2014 as <\/span>pa<\/i> in parental<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d2b \u2014 pha \u2014 as in up-hill (aspirated explosive)<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d2c \u2014 ba \u2014 as <\/span>ba<\/i> in balloon<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d2d \u2014 bha \u2014 as in abhor (aspirated explosive)<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d2e \u2014 ma \u2014 as <\/span>ma<\/i> in maternal<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d2f \u2014 ya \u2014 as <\/span>ya<\/i> in yahoo (German <\/span>j<\/i>)<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d30 \u2014 ra \u2014 a palatal <\/span>r<\/i><\/li>\n
    • \u0d31 \u2014 \u0155a \u2014 a cerebral <\/span>r<\/i> (German <\/span>r<\/i>)<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d32 \u2014 la \u2014 as <\/span>la<\/i> in laborious<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d35 \u2014 va \u2014 as <\/span>va<\/i> in variety (soft English <\/span>v<\/i>)<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d36 \u2014 \u0161a \u2014 a palatal <\/span>sh<\/i><\/li>\n
    • \u0d37 \u2014 \u0161a \u2014 a cerebral <\/span>sh<\/i> (English <\/span>sh<\/i>)<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d38 \u2014 sa \u2014 as <\/span>sa<\/i> in salute<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d39 \u2014 ha \u2014 as <\/span>ha<\/i> in harangue<\/span><\/li>\n
    • \u0d33 \u2014 \u1e37a \u2014 a cerebral <\/span>l<\/i><\/li>\n
    • \u0d34 \u2014 \u1e3ba \u2014 a cerebro\u2013palatal <\/span>l<\/i><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
      Final Consonants (Section 1.b):<\/b> <\/span>The following characters express consonants without the inherent vowel:<\/span> <\/span>\u0d7f (k), \u0d7a (\u1e47), \u0d7b (\u0144), \u0d2e\u0d4d (m), \u0d55 (y), \u0d7c (r), \u0d7d (l), \u0d7e (\u1e37), \u0d34\u0d4d (\u1e3b).<\/span><\/div>\n
      \u00a74. Peculiarities (Literal Extraction)<\/span><\/div>\n
      “a. \u0d7d, besides expressing final l, serves also for Sanscrit \u0d24\u0d4d t, which in Malay\u0101-\u1e37am is pronounced l, f.i. in \u0d09\u0d7d, \u0d24\u0d7d, \u0d2e\u0d7d etc.; \u0d05\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d2d\u0d41\u0d24\u0d02, \u0d09\u0d24\u0d4d\u0d38\u0d3e\u0d39\u0d02, \u0d24\u0d3e\u0d7d\u0d2a\u0d7c\u0d2f\u0d4d\u0d2f\u0d02, \u0d1a\u0d7d\u0d15\u0d4d\u0d15\u0d3e\u0d30\u0d02, \u0d17\u0d7d\u0d17\u0d26\u0d02, etc. (These are in Sanscrit \u010damat-k\u00e4ra, gadga\u010fa, etc.).<\/span><\/div>\n
      b. \u0d28 & \u0d7b. The Malay\u0101\u1e37am has two different n, viz: the true dental \u0d28 (4th Varga) and the Dravidian (dento-gingival) \u0d7b (6th Varga, page 523). The distinct pronunciation of both is still in use, but not nowadays, (as is the case with the Tamil), the consistent writing of the characters representing it.<\/span><\/div>\n
      c. \u0d31 (6th Varga) has three different pronunciations. 1. \u0d31 doubled (\u0d31\u0d4d\u0d31) is marked \u0165\u0165a (resembling tt in utter), 2. combined with \u0d7b (\u0d28\u0d4d\u0d31) is marked \u0144\u010fa (resembling nd in binder), 3. initial and medial \u0d31 is marked \u0155.”<\/span><\/div>\n
      The Function of the Vir\u0101ma (\u02d8)<\/b> <\/span>The <\/span>vir\u0101ma<\/i> (or chandrakkala) is a critical marker in Gundert\u2019s orthography. For the modern student, it signifies the absence of a vowel following a consonant (e.g., <\/span>k\u012b\u1e3b<\/i>, <\/span>\u0161ubh<\/i>). Significantly, Gundert utilizes it to show the “real and accurate pronunciation of the half u as \u1ee5.” Furthermore, it is used for the “convenience of the reader” to indicate an arbitrary division of words in sentences that would otherwise be written as a single, continuous string.<\/span> <\/span>Example:<\/b> <\/span>parabrahmatt\u014d\u1e0d' onni\u010d\u010d'<\/code> (instead of the continuous <\/span>parabrahmatt\u014d\u1e0donni\u010d\u010d\u2019<\/i>).<\/span><\/div>\n
      The mechanical precision of the script provides the necessary foundation for exploring the etymological origins of the Malayalam lexicon.<\/span><\/div>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"menu_order":2,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-22","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":19,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundert\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/22","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundert\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundert\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundert\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundert\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/22\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":23,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundert\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/22\/revisions\/23"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundert\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/19"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundert\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/22\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundert\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=22"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundert\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=22"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundert\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=22"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.psgaesthetics.uk\/gundert\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=22"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}